Novel cancer-related regulatory targets for the signalling sphingolipids sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosylphosphorylcholine

The signalling sphingolipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is necessary for development of the immune system and vasculature and on a cellular level regulates migration, proliferation and survival. Due to these traits S1P has an important role in cancer biology. It is considered a primarily cancer-promoting factor and the enzyme which produces it, sphingosine kinase (SphK), is often over-expressed in tumours. S1P is naturally present in the blood, lymph, tissue fluids and cell cytoplasm and functions through its cell surface receptors (S1P1-5) and as an intracellular second messenger. Sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) is closely related to S1P and has similar regulatory functions but has not been extensively studied. Both S1P and SPC are able to evoke either stimulatory or inhibitory effects on cancer cells depending on the context. The aim of this thesis work was to study novel regulatory targets of S1P and SPC, which mediate the effects of S1P/SPC signalling on cancer cell behaviour. The investigated targets are the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1), the intermediate filament protein vimentin and components of the Hippo signalling pathway. HIF-1 has a central role in cancer biology, as it regulates a multitude of cancer-related genes and is potently activated by intratumoural hypoxia through stabilization of the regulatory subunit HIF-1α. Tumours typically harbour high HIF-1α levels and HIF-1, in turn, facilitates tumour angiogenesis and metastasis and regulates cancer cell metabolism. We found S1P to induce follicular thyroid cancer cell migration in normal oxygen conditions by increasing HIF-1α synthesis and stability and subsequently HIF-1 activity. Vimentin is a central regulator of cell motility and is also commonly over-expressed in cancers. Vimentin filaments form a cytoskeletal network in mesenchymal cells as well as epithelial cancer cells which have gone through epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Vimentin is heavily involved in cancer cell invasion and gives tumours metastatic potential. We saw both S1P and SPC induce phosphorylation of vimentin monomers and reorganization of the vimentin filament network in breast and anaplastic thyroid cancer cells. We also found vimentin to mediate the anti-migratory effect of S1P/SPC on these cells. The Hippo pathway is a novel signalling cascade which controls cancer-related processes such as cellular proliferation and survival in response to various extracellular signals. The core of the pathway consists of the transcriptional regulators YAP and TAZ, which activate predominantly cancer-promoting genes, and the tumour suppressive kinases Lats1 and Lats2 which inhibit YAP/TAZ. Increased YAP expression and activity has been reported for a wide variety of cancers. We found SPC to regulate Hippo signalling in breast cancer cells in a two-fold manner through effects on phosphorylation status, activity and/or expression of YAP and Lats2. In conclusion, this thesis reveals new details of the signalling function of S1P and SPC and regulation of the central oncogenic factors HIF-1 and vimentin as well as the novel cancer-related pathway Hippo.

Timing of di-ammonium phosphate addition to fermenting chardonnay must : effect on nitrogen utilization, ethyl-carbamate formation, and CAR1 expression by yeast /

The maximum amount of ethyl carbamate (EC), a known animal carcinogen produced by the reaction of urea and ethanol, allowed in alcoholic beverages is regulated by legislation in many countries. Wine yeast produce urea by the metabolism of arginine, the predominant assimilable amino acid in must. This action is due to arginase (encoded by CARl). Regulation of CARl, and other genes in this pathway, is often attributed to a well-documented phenomenon known as nitrogen catabolite repression. The effect of the timing of di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) additions on the nitrogen utilization, regulation of CARl, and EC production was investigated. A correlation was found between the timing of DAP addition and the utilization of nitrogen. When DAP was added earlier in the fermentations, less amino nitrogen and more ammonia nitrogen was sequestered from the media by the cells. It was also seen that early DAP addition led to more total nitrogen being used, with a maximal difference of ~25% between fermentations where no DAP was added versus addition at the start of the fermentation. The effect of the timing ofDAP addition on the expression of CARJ during fermentation was analyzed via northern transfer and the relative levels of CARl expression were determined. The trends in expression can be correlated to the nitrogen data and be used to partially explain differences in EC formation between the treatments. EC was quantified at the end of fermentation by GC/MS. In Montrachet yeast, a significant positive correlation was found between the timing of DAP addition, from early to late, and the final EC concentration m the wine (r = 0.9226). In one of the fermentations, EC levels of 30.5 ppb was foimd when DAP was added at the onset of fermentation. A twofold increase (69.5 ppb) was observed when DAP was added after 75% of the sugars were metabolized. When no DAP was added, the ethyl carbamate levels are comparable at a value of 38 ppb. In contrast, the timing of DAP additions do not affect the level EC produced by the yeast ECU 18 in this manner. The study of additional yeast strains shows that the effect of DAP addition to fermentations is strain dependent. Our results reveal the potential importance of the timing of DAP addition to grape must with respect to EC production, and the regulatory effect of DAP additions on the expression of genes in the pathway for arginine metabolism in certain wine yeast strains.

The influence of skeletal muscle cell volume on the regulation of carbohydrate uptake and muscle metabolism

This study investigated the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism and glucose uptake through changes in skeletal muscle cell volume. Using an established invitro isolated whole muscle model, soleus (SOL) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles were dissected from male rats and incubated in an organ bath containing Sigma medium-199 with 8 mM D-glucose altered to target osmolality (hypo-osmotic: HYPO, iso-osmotic: ISO, hyper-osmotic: HYPER; 190, 290, 400 mmol/kg). Muscles were divided into two groups; metabolite (MM) and uptake (MU). MM (N=48) were incubated for 60 minutes and were then immediately flash frozen. MU (N=24) were incubated for 30 minutes and then the extracellular fluid was exchanged for media containing ^H-glucose and ^'*C-mannitol and incubated for another 30 minutes. After the incubation, the muscles were freeze clamped. Results demonstrated a relative water decrease and increase in HYPER and HYPO, respectively. EDL and SOL glucose uptakes were found to be significantly greater in HYPER conditions. The HYPER condition resulted in significant alterations in muscle metabolite concentrations (lower glycogen, elevated lactate, and G-6-P) suggesting a catabolic cell state, and an increase in glycogen synthase transformation when compared to the HYPO group. In conclusion, skeletal muscle cell volume alters rates of glucose uptake with further alterations in muscle metabolites and glycogen synthase transformation.

Development of packaging cell lines for rescuing BAV2 viral vectors

The construction of adenovirus vectors for cloning and foreign gene expression requires packaging cell lines that can complement missing viral functions caused by sequence deletions and/or replacement with foreign DNA sequences. In this study, packaging cell lines were designed to provide in trans the missing bovine adenovirus functions, so that recombinant viruses could be generated. Fetal bovine kidney and lUng cells, acquired at the trimester term from a pregnant cow, were tranfected with both digested wild type BAV2 genomic DNA and pCMV-EI. The plasmid pCMV-EI was specifically constructed to express El of BAV2 under the control of the cytomegalovirus enhancer/promoter (CMV). Selection for "true" transformants by continuous passaging showed no success in isolating immortalised cells, since the cells underwent crisis resulting in complete cell death. Moreover, selection for G418 resistance, using the same cells, also did not result in the isolation of an immortalised cell line and the same culture-collapse event was observed. The lack of success in establishing an immortalised cell line from fetal tissue prompted us to transfect a pre-established cell line. We began by transfecting MDBK (Mardin-Dardy bovine kidney) cells with pCMV-El-neo, which contain the bacterial selectable marker neo gene. A series of MDBK-derived cell lines, that constitutively express bovine adenoviral (BAV) early region 1 (El), were then isolated. Cells selected for resistance to the drug G418 were isolated collectively for full characterisation to assess their suitability as packaging cell lines. Individual colonies were isolated by limiting dilution and further tested for El expression and efficiency of DNA uptake. Two cell lines, L-23 and L-24, out of 48 generated foci tested positive for £1 expression using Northern Blot analysis. DNA uptake studies, using both lipofectamine and calcium phosphate methods, were performed to compare these cells, their parental MDBK cells, 8 and the unrelated human 293 cells as a benchmark. The results revealed that the new MDBKderived clones were no more efficient than MDBK cells in the transient expression of transfected DNA and that they were inferior to 293 cells, when using lacZ as the reporter gene. In view of the inherently poor transfection efficiency of MDBK cells and their derivatives, a number of other bovine cells were investigated for their potential as packaging cells. The cell line CCL40 was chosen for its high efficiency in DNA uptake and subsequently transfected with the plasmid vector pCMV El-neo. By selection with the drug G418, two cell lines were isolated, ProCell 1 and ProCell 2. These cell lines were tested for El expression, permissivity to BAV2 and DNA uptake efficiency, revealing a DNA uptake efficiency of 37 % , comparable to that of CCL40. Attempts to rescue BAV2 mutants carrying the lacZ gene in place of £1 or £3 were carried out by co-transfecting wild type viral DNA with either the plasmid pdlElE-Z (which contains BAV2 sequences from 0% to 40.4% with the lacZ gene in place of the £1 region from 1.1% to 8.25%) or with the plasmid pdlE3-5-Z (which contains BAV2 sequences from 64.8% to 100% with the lacZ gene in place of the E3 region from 75.8% to 81.4%). These cotransfections did not result in the generation of a viral mutant. The lack of mutant generation was thought to be caused by the relative inefficiency ofDNA uptake. Consequently, cosBAV2, a cosmid vector carrying the BAV2 genome, was modified to carry the neo reporter gene in place of the £3 region from 75.8% to 81.4%. The use of a single cosmid vector earring the whole genome would eliminate the need for homologous recombination in order to generate a viral vector. Unfortunately, the transfection of cosBAV2- neo also did not result in the generation of a viral mutant. This may have been caused by the size of the £3 deletion, where excess sequences that are essential to the virus' survival might have been deleted. As an extension to this study, the spontaneous E3 deletion, accidently discovered in our viral stock, could be used as site of foreign gene insertion.

L-Glutamate uptake, decarboxylation to -aminobutyric acid and GABA efflux in isolated Asparagus sprengeri mesophyll cells

Addition of L-glutamate caused alkalinization of the medium surrounding Asparagus spreng.ri mesophyll cells. This suggests a H+/L-glutmate symport uptake system for L-glutamate. However stoichiometries of H+/L-glutamate symport into Asparagus cells were much higher than those in other plant systems. Medium alkalinization may also result from a metabolic decarboxylation process. Since L-glutmate is decarboxylated to r-amino butyric acid (SABA) in this system, the origin of medium alkalinization was reconsidered. Suspensions of mechanically isolated and photosyntheically competent Asparagus sprengeri mesophyll cells were used to investigate the H+/L-glutamate symport system, SABA production, GABA transport, and the origin of L-glutamate dependent medium alkalinization. The major results obtained are summarized as follows: 1. L-Glutamate and GABA were the second or third most abundant amino acids in these cells. Cellular concentrations of L-glutamate were 1.09 mM and 1.31 mM in the light and dark, respectively. Those of SABA were 1.23 mM and 1.17 mM in the light and dark, respectively. 2. Asparagine was the most abundant amino acid in xylem sap and comprised 54 to 68 1. of the amino acid pool on a molar basis. GABA was the second most abundant amino acid and represented 10 to 11 1. of the amino acid pool. L-Slutamate was a minor component. 3. A 10 minute incubation with 1 mM L-glutamate increased the production of GABA in the medium by 2,743 7. and 2,241 7. in the light and dark, respectively. 4. L-Glutamate entered the cells prior to decarboxylation. 5. There was no evidence for a H+/GABA symport process • 6. GABA was produced by loss of carbon-1 of L-glutamate. 7. The specific activity of newly synthesized labeled GABA suggests that it is not equilibrated with a storage pool of GABA. 8. The mechanism of GABA efflux appears to be a passive process. 9. The evidence indicates that the origin of L-glutamate dependent medium alkalinization is a H+/L-glutamate symport not an extracellular decarboxylation. The possible role of GABA production in regulating cytoplasmic pH and L-glutamate levels during rapid electrogenic H+/L-glutamate symport is discussed.

Effects of naringenin on glucose uptake in L6 skeletal muscle cells

Diabetes mellitus is a disorder of inadequate insulin action and consequent high blood glucose levels. Type 2 diabetes accounts for the majority of cases of the disease and is characterized by insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency resulting in metabolic deregulation. It is a complex disorder to treat as its pathogenesis is not fully understood and involves a variety of defects including ~-cell failure, insulin resistance in the classic target tissues (adipose, muscle, liver), as well as defects in a-cells and kidney, brain, and gastrointestinal tissue. Present oral treatments, which aim at mimicking the effects of insulin, remain limited in their efficacy and therefore the study of the effects of novel compounds on insulin target tissues is an important area of research both for potentially finding more treatment options as well as for increasing our knowledge of metabolic regulation in health and disease. In recent years the extensively studied polyphenol, resveratrol, has been reported to have antidiabetic effects showing that it increases glucose uptake by skeletal muscle cells and prevents fatty acid-induced insulin resistance in vitro and in vivo. Naringenin, a citrus flavonoid with structural similarities to resveratrol, is reported to have antioxidan.t, antiproliferative, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. Effects on glucose and lipid metabolism have also been reported including blood glucose and lipid lowering effects. However, whether naringenin has insulinlike effects is not clear. In the present study the effects of naringenin on glucose uptake in skeletal muscle cells are examined and compared with those of insulin. Naringenin treatment of L6 myotubes increased glucose uptake in a dose- and time dependent manner and independent of insulin. The effects of naringenin on glucose uptake achieved similar levels as seen with maximum insulin stimulation and its effect was additive with sub-maximal insulin treatment. Like insulin naringenin treatment did not increase glucose uptake in myoblasts. To elucidate the mechanism involved in naringenin action we looked at its effect on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt, two signalling molecules that are involved in the insulin signalling cascade leading to glucose uptake. Naringenin did not stimulate basal or insulinstimulated Akt phosphorylation but inhibition of PI3K by wortmannin partially repressed the naringenin-induced glucose uptake. We also examined naringenin's effect on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a molecule that is involved in mediating glucose uptake by a variety of stimuli. Naringenin stimulated AMPK phosphorylation and this effect was not inhibited by wortmannin. To deduce the nature of the naringenin-stimulated AMPK phosphorylation and its impact on glucose uptake we examined the role of several molecules implicated in mod.ulating AMPK activity including SIRTl, LKB 1, and ca2+ Icalmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase (CaMKK). Our results indicate that inhibition of SIRTI did not prevent the naringeninstimulated glucose uptake Of. AMPK phosphorylation; naringenin did not stimulate LKB 1 phosphorylation; and inhibition of CaMKK did not prevent naringeninstimulated glucose uptake. Inhibition of AMPK by compound C also did not prevent naringenin-stimulated glucose uptake but effectively inhibited the phosphorylation of AMPK suggesting that AMPK may not be required for the naringenin-stimulated glucose uptake.

TIME COURSE OF SIGNALING PROCESSES INVOLVED WITH EXTRACELLULAR OSMOTIC - INDUCED GLUCOSE UPTAKE IN MAMMALIAN SKELETAL MUSCLE

Extracellular hyper-osmotic (HYPER) stress increases glucose uptake to defend cell volume, when compared to iso-osmotic (ISO) conditions in skeletal muscle. The purpose of this study was to determine a time course for changes in common signaling proteins involved in glucose uptake during acute hyper-osmotic stress in isolated mammalian skeletal muscle. Rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles were excised and incubated in a media formulated to mimic ISO (290 ± 10 mmol/kg) or HYPER (400 ± 10 mmol/kg) extracellular condition (Sigma Media-199). Signaling mechanisms were investigated by determining the phosphorylation states of Akt, AMPK, AS160, cPKC and ERK after 30, 45 and 60 minutes of incubation. AS160 was found to be significantly more phosphorylated in HYPER conditions compared to ISO after 30 minutes (p<0.01). It is speculated that AS160 phosphorylation increases glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) content at the cell surface thereby facilitating an increase in glucose uptake under hyper-osmotic stress.

Icewine fermentation by Saccharomyces cervisiae : fundamental stress responses and comparative fermentation dynamics

Please consult the paper edition of this thesis to read. It is available on the 5th Floor of the Library at Call Number: Z 9999.5 B63 P54 2007

Investigating the role of apoptosis regulator EndoG on exogenous DNA uptake, stability, replication and recombination

Endonuclease G (EndoG) is a well conserved mitochondrial nuclease with dual lethal and vital roles in the cell. It non-specifically cleaves endogenous DNA following apoptosis induction, but is also active in non-apoptotic cells for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) replication and may also be important for replication, repair and recombination of genomic DNA. The aim of our study was to examine whether EndoG exerts similar activities on exogenous DNA substrates such as plasmid DNA (pDNA) and viral DNA vectors, considering their importance in gene therapy applications. The effects of EndoG knockdown on pDNA stability and levels of encoded reporter gene expression were evaluated in the cervical carcinoma HeLa cells. Transfection of pDNA vectors encoding short-hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) reduced levels of EndoG mRNA and nuclease activity in HeLa cells. In physiological circumstances, EndoG knockdown did not have an effect on the stability of pDNA or the levels of encoded transgene expression as measured over a four day time-course. However, when endogenous expression of EndoG was induced by an extrinsic stimulus (a cationic liposome transfection reagent), targeting of EndoG by shRNA improved the perceived stability and transgene expression of pDNA vectors. Therefore, EndoG is not a mediator of exogenous DNA clearance, but in non-physiological circumstances it may non-specifically cleave intracellular DNA regardless of its origin. To investigate possible effects of EndoG on viral DNA vectors, we constructed and evaluated AdsiEndoG, a first generation adenovirus (Ad5 ΔE1) vector encoding a shRNA directed against EndoG mRNA, along with appropriate Ad5 ΔE1 controls. Infection of HeLa cells with AdsiEndoG at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10 p.f.u./cell resulted in an early cell proliferation defect, absent from cells infected at equivalent MOI with control Ad5 ΔE1 vectors. Replication of Ad5 ΔE1 DNA was detected for all vectors, but AdsiEndoG DNA accumulated to levels that were 50 fold higher than initially, four days after infection, compared to 14 fold for the next highest control Ad5 ΔE1 vector. Deregulation of the cell cycle by EndoG depletion, which is characterized by an accumulation of cells in the G2/M transition, is the most likely reason for the observed cell proliferation defect. The enhanced replication of AdsiEndoG is consistent with this conclusion, as Ad5 ΔE1 DNA replication is intimately related to cell cycling and prolongation or delay in G2/M greatly enhances this process. Furthermore, infection of HeLa with AdsiEndoG at MOI of 50 p.f.u./cell resulted in an almost complete disappearance of viable, adherent tumour cells from culture, whereas almost a third of the cells were still adherent after infection with control Ad5 ΔE1 vectors, relative to the non-infected control. Therefore, targeting of EndoG by RNAi is a viable strategy for improving the oncolytic properties of first generation adenovirus vectors. In addition, AdsiEndoG-mediated knockdown of EndoG reduced homologous recombination between pDNA substrates in HeLa cells. The effect was modest but, nevertheless demonstrated that the proposed role of EndoG in homologous recombination of cellular DNA also extends to exogenous DNA substrates.

Investigating the Biological Effects of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) Extract on Skeletal Muscle Glucose Uptake

Skeletal muscle (SKM) is the most important tissue in maintaining glucose homeostasis and impairments in this tissue leads to insulin resistance (IR). Activation of 5’ AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) is viewed as a targeted approach to counteract IR. Rosemary extract (RE) has been reported to decrease blood glucose levels but its effects on SKM are not known. We hypothesized that RE acts directly on SKM to increase glucose uptake (GU). We found an increase in GU (184±5.07% of control, p<0.001) in L6 myotubes by RE to levels similar to insulin and metformin. Carnosic acid (CA) and rosmarinic acid (RA), major polyphenols found in RE, increased GU. RE, CA, and RA significantly increased AMPK phosphorylation and their effects on GU was reduced by an AMPK inhibitor. Our study is the first to show a direct effect of RE, CA and RA on SKM GU by a mechanism that involves AMPK activation.

Impacts de la fertilisation phosphatée sur la biodiversité microbienne de sols agricoles

La fertilisation phosphatée est très répandue dans les pratiques agricoles Nord-Américaines. Bien que généralement très efficace pour augmenter la production végétale, son utilisation peut engendrer certaines contaminations environnementales. Afin de diminuer ce problème, plusieurs pratiques de gestion sont envisagées. Parmi celles-ci, on retrouve l’intéressante possibilité de manipuler la flore microbienne car cette dernière est reconnue pour son implication dans bons nombres de processus fondamentaux liés à la fertilité du sol. Cette étude a démontré que lors d’essais en champs, la forme de fertilisant ajouté au sol ainsi que la dose de phosphore (P) appliquée avaient un impact sur la distribution des microorganismes dans les différentes parcelles. Une première expérience menée sur une culture de luzerne en prairie semi-aride a montré que les échantillons provenant de parcelles ayant reçu différentes doses de P présentaient des différences significatives dans leurs communautés bactériennes et fongiques. La communauté de CMA est restée similaire entre les différents traitements. Une deuxième expérience fut menée pendant trois saisons consécutives afin de déterminer l’effet de différentes formes de fertilisation organiques et minérale ajustées selon une dose unique de P sur les populations bactériennes et fongiques d’une culture intensive de maïs en rotation avec du soja. Les résultats des analyses ont montrés que les populations varient selon le type de fertilisation reçu et que les changements sont indépendants du type de végétaux cultivé. Par contre, les populations microbiennes subissent une variation plus marquée au cours de la saison de culture. La technique de DGGE a permis d’observer les changements frappant la diversité microbienne du sol mais n’a permis d’identifier qu’une faible proportion des organismes en cause. Parallèlement à cette deuxième étude, une seconde expérience au même site fut menée sur la communauté de champignons mycorhiziens à arbuscules (CMA) puisqu’il s’agit d’organismes vivant en symbiose mutualiste avec la majorité des plantes et favorisant la nutrition de même que l’augmentation de la résistance aux stress de l’hôte. Ceci permit d’identifier et de comparer les différents CMA présents dans des échantillons de sol et de racines de maïs et soja. Contrairement aux bactéries et aux champignons en général, les CMA présentaient une diversité très stable lors des différents traitements. Par contre, au cours des trois années expérimentales, il a été noté que certains ribotypes étaient significativement plus liés au sol ou aux racines. Finalement, l’ensemble de l’étude a démontré que la fertilisation phosphatée affecte la structure des communautés microbiennes du sol dans les systèmes évalués. Cependant, lors de chaque expérience, la date d’échantillonnage jouait également un rôle prépondérant sur la distribution des organismes. Plusieurs paramètres du sol furent aussi mesurés et ils présentaient aussi une variation au cours de la saison. L’ensemble des interactions possibles entre ces différents paramètres qui, dans certains cas, variaient selon le traitement appliqué, aurait alors probablement plus d’impact sur la biodiversité microbienne que la seule fertilisation.

Étude du rôle spécifique du système à deux composantes PhoBR et du système Pst (phosphate specific transport) dans la virulence d’une souche pathogène aviaire de Escherichia coli (APEC)

Les souches d’Escherichia coli pathogènes aviaires (APEC) sont responsables d’infections respiratoires et de septicémies chez la volaille. Le régulon Pho est contrôlé conjointement par le système à deux composantes PhoBR et par le système de transport spécifique du phosphate (Pst). Afin de déterminer l’implication de PhoBR et du système Pst dans la pathogenèse de la souche APEC O78 χ7122, différentes souche mutantes phoBR et pst ont été testées pour divers traits de virulence in vivo et in vitro. Les mutations menant à l’activation constitutive du régulon Pho rendaient les souches plus sensibles au peroxyde d’hydrogène et au sérum de lapin comparativement à la souche sauvage. De plus, l’expression des fimbriae de type 1 était affectée chez ces souches. L’ensemble des mutants Pho-constitutifs étaient aussi significativement moins virulents que la souche sauvage dans un modèle de coinfection de poulet, incluant les souches avec un système Pst fonctionnel. De plus, l’inactivation du régulateur PhoB chez un mutant Pst restaure la virulence. Par ailleurs, l’inactivation de PhoB n’affecte pas la virulence de la souche χ7122 dans notre modèle. De manière intéressante, le degré d’atténuation des souches mutantes corrèle directement avec le niveau d’activation du régulon Pho. Globalement, les résultats indiquent que l’activation du régulon Pho plutôt que le transport du phosphate via le système Pst joue un rôle majeur dans l’atténuation des APEC.