Modelo gráfico para la datación de vías romanas empedradas a partir del estudio de sus estados de frecuentación y del análisis superficial de roderas

La presente tesis doctoral se orienta al estudio y análisis de los caminos empedrados antiguos, desde la época prerromana, tanto desde el punto de vista histórico como desde el técnico. La cuantificación de la romanidad de un camino representa un objetivo importante para la mayoría de los estudiosos de la caminería antigua, así como para los arqueólogos, por los datos que ofrece acerca del uso del territorio, los trazados de caminos en la antigüedad y los tráficos asociados. Cuantificar la romanidad de un camino no es tarea sencilla debido a que intervienen multitud de condicionantes que están vivos y son cambiantes como consecuencia del dinamismo inherente al propio camino. En cuanto al aspecto histórico, se realiza una descripción y análisis de la evolución del camino en la Península Ibérica desde sus orígenes hasta mediados del siglo XX, que permite diferenciar la red itineraria según su momento histórico. Así mismo, se describen y analizan: las ruedas y los carros desde sus orígenes, especialmente en la época romana -incluyendo una toma de medidas de distintos tipos de carro, existentes en instituciones y colecciones particulares-; las técnicas de transporte en la antigüedad y las características de la infraestructura viaria de época romana, detallando aspectos generales de sus técnicas de ingeniería y construcción. Desde el punto de vista técnico, el enfoque metodológico ha sido definir un Índice de Romanidad del Camino (IRC) para la datación de vías romanas empedradas, basado en un análisis multicriterio, a partir de los distintos factores que caracterizan su romanidad. Se ha realizado un exhaustivo estudio de campo, con la correspondiente toma de datos en las vías. Se han realizado una serie de ensayos de laboratorio con un prototipo creado exprofeso para simular el desgaste de la piedra producido por el traqueteo del carro al circular por el camino empedrado y dar una hipótesis de datación del camino. Se ha realizado un tratamiento estadístico con la muestra de datos medidos en campo. Se ha definido además el concepto de elasticidad de rodera usando la noción de derivada elástica. En cuanto a los resultados obtenidos: se ha calculado el Índice de Romanidad del Camino (IRC) en una serie de vías empedradas, para cuantificar su romanidad, obteniéndose un resultado coherente con la hipótesis previa sobre la datación de dichas vías; y se ha formulado un modelo exponencial para el número de frecuentaciones de carga que lo relaciona con la elasticidad de rodera y con su esbeltez y que se ha utilizado para relacionar la elasticidad de la rodera con la geología de la roca. Se ha iniciado una línea de investigación sobre la estimación de tráficos históricos en la caminería antigua, considerando que el volumen de tráfico a lo largo del tiempo en un tramo de vía está relacionado con los valores de elasticidad de rodera de dicho tramo a través de la tipología de la roca. En resumen, la presente tesis doctoral proporciona un método para sistematizar el estudio de los caminos antiguos, así como para datarlos y estimar la evolución de sus tráficos. The present Ph. D. Thesis aims to study and to analyze ancient cobbled ways, since pre-roman times, both from the historical and technical points of view. The quantification of the Roman character of a way represents an important target for most of the researchers of ancient ways, as well as for the archaeologists, due to information that it offers about the use of the territory, the tracings of ways in the antiquity and the associate flows. To quantify the Roman character of a way is not a simple task because it involves multitude of influent factors that are alive and variable as a result of the dynamism inherent to the way. As for the historical aspect, a description and analysis of the evolution of the way in the Iberian Peninsula from its origins until the middle of the twentieth century has been done. This allows us to distinguish between elements of the network according to its historical moment. Likewise, a description and analysis is given about: the wheels and the cars since their origins, especially in the Roman time - including a capture of measurements of different types of car, belonging to institutions and to particular collections-; the transport techniques on the antiquity and the characteristics of the road infrastructure of Roman epoch, detailing general technical engineering and constructive aspects. From the technical point of view, the methodological approach has been to define an Index of the Roman Character of the Way (IRC) for the dating of cobbled Roman routes, based on a multi-criterion analysis, involving different factors typical of Roman ways. An exhaustive field study has been realized, with the corresponding capture of information in the routes. A series of laboratory essays has been realized with an ad hoc prototype created to simulate the wear of the stone produced by cars circulating along the cobbled way, and to give a dating hypothesis of the way. A statistical treatment has been realized with the sample of information measured in field. There has been defined also the concept of elasticity of rolling trace using the notion of elastic derivative. As for the obtained results: there has been calculated the Index of Roman Character of the Way (IRC) in a series of cobbled routes, to quantify its Roman character, obtaining a coherent result with the previous dating hypothesis of the above mentioned routes; and an exponential model has been formulated for the number of frequent attendances of load that relates this number to the elasticity of rolling trace and to its slenderness and that has been used to relate the elasticity of the rolling trace to the geology of the rock. An investigation line has been opened about the estimation of historical flows in ancient ways, considering that the traffic volume over the course of time in a route stretch is related to the values of elasticity of rolling trace of the above mentioned stretch by means of the typology of the rock. In short, the present Ph. D. Thesis provides a method to systematize the study of ancient ways, as well as to date them and to estimate the evolution of their flows.

Categorization of Anti-Patterns in Software Project Management

In the last decades, software systems have become an intrinsic element in our daily lives. Software exists in our computers, in our cars, and even in our refrigerators. Today’s world has become heavily dependent on software and yet, we still struggle to deliver quality software products, on-time and within budget. When searching for the causes of such alarming scenario, we find concurrent voices pointing to the role of the project manager. But what is project management and what makes it so challenging? Part of the answer to this question requires a deeper analysis of why software project managers have been largely ineffective. Answering this question might assist current and future software project managers in avoiding, or at least effectively mitigating, problematic scenarios that, if unresolved, will eventually lead to additional failures. This is where anti-patterns come into play and where they can be a useful tool in identifying and addressing software project management failure. Unfortunately, anti-patterns are still a fairly recent concept, and thus, available information is still scarce and loosely organized. This thesis will attempt to help remedy this scenario. The objective of this work is to help organize existing, documented software project management anti-patterns by answering our two research questions: · What are the different anti-patterns in software project management? · How can these anti-patterns be categorized?

Con motivo de haver embiado al Señor Abate D. Manuel Lassala, autor de la Ifigenia en Aulide, en idioma italiano, unos exemplares de la traduccion castellana

Contiene: Romance ; A la conquista de Menorca por las Armas Catholicas : Oda ; Al denuedo y constancia con que peleó el Navio Santo Domingo el dia 16 de Enero de 1780 : Oda

Sermones que en las solemnes fiestas de la translacion del Smo. Sacramento, y milagrosa imagen de N. Sra. de las Mercedes al nuevo Templo del Real ... [Texto impreso]

Sign. : [ ]6, B-L4

Development of the infrastructure for a multi-agent traffic management system simulation

This document contains detailed description of the design and the implementation of a multi-agent application controlling traffic lights in a city together with a system for simulating traffic and testing. The goal of this thesis is to design and build a simplified intelligent and distributed solution to the problem with the traffic in the big cities following different good practices in order to allow future refining of the model of the real world. The problem of the traffic in the big cities is still a problem that cannot be solved. Not only is the increasing number of cars a reason for the traffic jams, but also the way the traffic is organized. Usually, the intersections with traffic lights are replaced by roundabouts or interchanges to increase the number of cars that can cross the intersection in certain time. But still there are places where the infrastructure cannot be changed and the traffic light semaphores are the only way to control the car flows. In real life, the traffic lights have a predefined plan for change or they receive information from a centralized system when and how they have to change. But what if the traffic lights can cooperate and decide on their own when and how to change? Using this problem, the purpose of the thesis is to explore different agent-based software engineering approaches to design and build a non-conventional distributed system. From the software engineering point of view, the goal of the thesis is to apply the knowledge and use the skills, acquired during the various courses of the master program in Software Engineering, while solving a practical and complex problem such as the traffic in the cities.

Modelización del efecto de la pendiente de la vía sobre el consumo de vehículos turismo

El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo generar una metodología validada que permita predecir el consumo de vehículos turismo circulando en cualquier tramo de vía a partir del perfil orográfico y del diagrama velocidad-tiempo. Para la generación de la metodología, se ha realizado un modelo de simulación con el programa ADVISOR que permite calcular el consumo de combustible para un determinado recorrido en el que se tiene en cuenta el perfil orográfico. Este modelo fue validado con datos reales medidos con equipos on-board y se usó para calcular el consumo de combustible diferencial debido al efecto de la pendiente de la vía, al poderse simular con y sin pendiente. Se realizaron múltiples simulaciones de recorridos con velocidad máxima variable con el fin de obtener un número significativo de datos. Con los resultados de las diferentes simulaciones, se realizó un estudio estadístico, para determinar las variables influyentes y se generó una función estadística (Ecuación de Consumo Estimado – ECE) que permite calcular el consumo de combustible debido a la pendiente de la vía, conociendo el consumo del vehículo en carretera llana (sin pendiente). Esta función estadística generada (ECE), se validó con datos reales medidos en tráfico real. Con el fin de darle generalidad y aplicabilidad a la función generada, y teniendo en cuenta que el consumo de combustible en carretera llana no está siempre disponible, se ha calculado el consumo de combustible sin pendiente utilizando la metodología Copert 4, metodología oficial desarrollada por la Agencia de Medio Ambiente de Europa (EEA) para la estimación de emisiones y consumo de combustible que está basada en datos experimentales pero que no tiene en cuenta la pendiente de la vía. La Ecuación de Consumo Estimado (ECE) aplicada a los consumos calculados por la metodología Copert 4, se valida también usando datos reales medidos en tráfico real y se comprueba que esta función se ajusta considerablemente bien a la realidad, con un error en el consumo acumulado frente al del ensayo real de un 1% y una correlación con el consumo instantáneo del ensayo real de 0,93. Se concluye, que la Función de Consumo Estimado (ECE), permite predecir el efecto de la pendiente sobre el consumo de combustible de un vehículo turismo en tráfico real con un error menor del 1%. Abstract This projects aims to develop a validated methodology that enables to predict cars consumption while circulating at any kind of road section based on its orographic outline and the speed-time diagram. In order to develop this methodology, a simulation model has been performed with the programme ADVISOR, that allows fuel consumption calculation for an specific route in which the orographic outline is considered. This model was validated by real data measured with an on-board equipment and it was used to calculate the differential fuel consumption caused by the effect of the slope on the road, as it was possible to simulate with or without slope. Many simulations were run with routes with variable maximum speed, aiming to obtain a significant amount of data. An statistical study was carried out with the results of those simulations with the purpose to determine the influential variables and an statistical function ( Estimated Consumption Equation – ECE) that enables fuel consumption calculation due to the road’s slope when the consumption of a vehicle on horizontal road (without any slope) is known. This statistical function (ECE) was validated by real data measured in real traffic conditions. With the purpose to generalise the function and increase its applicability, considering that the consumption of a vehicle on horizontal road is not always available, the nonslope fuel consumption has been calculated through Copert 4 methodology, which is the official methodology developed by the European Environmental Agency (EEA) for emissions and fuel consumption calculation based on experimental data, but without taking into consideration the road’s slope. The Estimated Consumption Equation (ECE) applied to the consumption calculated through Copert 4 methodology is also validated using real data measured in real traffic conditions. It was verified that this function considerably adjusts to reality, with an error on the accumulated consumption compared to the real test of 1% and a correlation with the real test immediate fuel consumption of 0,93. It is concluded that the Estimated Consumption Equation (ECE) enables to predict the effect of the slope on the fuel consumption of a car in real traffic conditions with an error less than 1%.

Testing of Android testing tools: development of a benchmark for the evaluation

With the ever growing trend of smart phones and tablets, Android is becoming more and more popular everyday. With more than one billion active users i to date, Android is the leading technology in smart phone arena. In addition to that, Android also runs on Android TV, Android smart watches and cars. Therefore, in recent years, Android applications have become one of the major development sectors in software industry. As of mid 2013, the number of published applications on Google Play had exceeded one million and the cumulative number of downloads was more than 50 billionii. A 2013 survey also revealed that 71% of the mobile application developers work on developing Android applicationsiii. Considering this size of Android applications, it is quite evident that people rely on these applications on a daily basis for the completion of simple tasks like keeping track of weather to rather complex tasks like managing one’s bank accounts. Hence, like every other kind of code, Android code also needs to be verified in order to work properly and achieve a certain confidence level. Because of the gigantic size of the number of applications, it becomes really hard to manually test Android applications specially when it has to be verified for various versions of the OS and also, various device configurations such as different screen sizes and different hardware availability. Hence, recently there has been a lot of work on developing different testing methods for Android applications in Computer Science fraternity. The model of Android attracts researchers because of its open source nature. It makes the whole research model more streamlined when the code for both, application and the platform are readily available to analyze. And hence, there has been a great deal of research in testing and static analysis of Android applications. A great deal of this research has been focused on the input test generation for Android applications. Hence, there are a several testing tools available now, which focus on automatic generation of test cases for Android applications. These tools differ with one another on the basis of their strategies and heuristics used for this generation of test cases. But there is still very little work done on the comparison of these testing tools and the strategies they use. Recently, some research work has been carried outiv in this regard that compared the performance of various available tools with respect to their respective code coverage, fault detection, ability to work on multiple platforms and their ease of use. It was done, by running these tools on a total of 60 real world Android applications. The results of this research showed that although effective, these strategies being used by the tools, also face limitations and hence, have room for improvement. The purpose of this thesis is to extend this research into a more specific and attribute-­‐ oriented way. Attributes refer to the tasks that can be completed using the Android platform. It can be anything ranging from a basic system call for receiving an SMS to more complex tasks like sending the user to another application from the current one. The idea is to develop a benchmark for Android testing tools, which is based on the performance related to these attributes. This will allow the comparison of these tools with respect to these attributes. For example, if there is an application that plays some audio file, will the testing tool be able to generate a test input that will warrant the execution of this audio file? Using multiple applications using different attributes, it can be visualized that which testing tool is more useful for which kinds of attributes. In this thesis, it was decided that 9 attributes covering the basic nature of tasks, will be targeted for the assessment of three testing tools. Later this can be done for much more attributes to compare even more testing tools. The aim of this work is to show that this approach is effective and can be used on a much larger scale. One of the flagship features of this work, which also differentiates it with the previous work, is that the applications used, are all specially made for this research. The reason for doing that is to analyze just that specific attribute in isolation, which the application is focused on, and not allow the tool to get bottlenecked by something trivial, which is not the main attribute under testing. This means 9 applications, each focused on one specific attribute. The main contributions of this thesis are: A summary of the three existing testing tools and their respective techniques for automatic test input generation of Android Applications. • A detailed study of the usage of these testing tools using the 9 applications specially designed and developed for this study. • The analysis of the obtained results of the study carried out. And a comparison of the performance of the selected tools.

Tridimensional simulation of the speed, pressure and turbulence fields of the air flow on the geometry of a freight truck inside a wind tunnel

This study shows the air flow behavior through the geometry of a freight truck inside a AF6109 wind tunnel with the purpose to predict the speed, pressure and turbulence fields made by the air flow, to decrease the aerodynamic resistance, to calculate the dragging coefficient, to evaluate the aerodynamics of the geometry of the prototype using the CFD technique and to compare the results of the simulation with the results obtained experimentally with the “PETER 739 HAULER” scaled freight truck model located on the floor of the test chamber. The Geometry went through a numerical simulation process using the CFX 5,7. The obtained results showed the behavior of the air flow through the test chamber, and also it showed the variations of speed and pressure at the exit of the chamber and the calculations of the coefficient and the dragging force on the geometry of the freight truck. The evaluation of the aerodynamics showed that the aerodynamic deflector is a device that helped the reduction the dragging produced in a significant way by the air. Furthermore, the dragging coefficient and force on the prototype freight truck could be estimated establishing an incomplete similarity.

Evaluación teórico experimental de la influencia de espumas de relleno metálicas como elementos de absorción de energía en perfiles tubulares de pequeño espesor. Su aplicación a vehículos para el transporte colectivo de personas

Los accidentes con implicación de autocares en los que se producen vuelcos ponen de manifiesto la especial agresividad de los mismos, como lo confirman las estadísticas. Como medida para mejorar la seguridad de los Vehículos de Grandes Dimensiones para el Transporte de Pasajeros (V.G.D.T.P.) frente a vuelco fue aprobado por las Naciones Unidas el Reglamento Nº 66 de Ginebra. Este reglamento establece los requisitos mínimos que las estructuras de los vehículos de grandes dimensiones deben cumplir con respecto a vuelco. El reglamento 66 ha supuesto un paso adelante muy importante en relación con la seguridad de los autocares, puesto que especifica por primera vez requerimientos estructurales a este tipo de vehículos, y en general ha supuesto una mejora del vehículo . Por otro lado, a consecuencia de la obligatoriedad de instalación de cinturones de seguridad, existe una unión entre pasajeros y vehículo, pero como no se trata de una unión rígida, hay que contemplar el porcentaje de la masa de los ocupantes que influye en la absorción de energía de la estructura. Además la retención de los ocupantes con cinturones de seguridad influye en la energía a absorber por la estructura del vehículo en dos aspectos, por un lado aumenta la masa del vehículo y en el otro se incrementa la altura el centro de gravedad. Esta situación a conducido a elaborar por parte de las Naciones Unidas la revisión 01 del Reglamento 66, en el que se considera que el 50 % de la masa total de los pasajeros posee una unión rígida con la estructura del vehículo, y por lo tanto debe ser tenida en cuenta si el vehículo posee sistemas de retención. En la situación actual, con limitaciones de peso del vehículo y peso por eje, los elementos de confort, seguridad y espacio para maleteros contribuyen a aumentar el peso del vehículo. Esto unido a la dificultad de introducción de cambios radicales en la concepción actual de fabricación de este tipo de vehículos por suponer unas pérdidas importantes para los fabricantes existentes, tanto en su conocimiento del producto como en su metodología de proceso, conlleva la necesidad cada vez más agobiante de analizar y evaluar otras alternativas estructurales que sin suponer grandes revoluciones a los productos actualmente en fabricación los complementen permitiendo adaptarse a los nuevos requerimientos en seguridad. Recientes desarrollos en la relación costo-beneficio de los procesos para la producción de materiales celulares metálicos de baja densidad, tales como las espumas metálicas, los posiciona como una alternativa de especial interés para la aplicación como elementos de absorción de energía para reforzar estructuras. El relleno con espumas metálicas puede ser más eficiente en términos de optimización de peso comparado con el aumento de espesor de los perfiles estructurales, dado que la absorción de energía se produce en una fracción relativamente pequeña de los perfiles, en las denominadas rótulas plásticas. La aplicación de espumas de relleno metálicas en estructuras de vehículos se está empezando a emplear en determinadas zonas de los vehículos de turismo, siendo totalmente novedosa cualquier intento de aplicación en estructuras de autobuses y autocares. Conforme a lo expuesto, y con el objeto de resolver estos problemas, se ha elaborado el presente trabajo de tesis doctoral, cuyos objetivos son: -Desarrollar un modelo matemático, que permita simular el ensayo de vuelco, considerando la influencia de los ocupantes retenidos con cinturones de seguridad para evaluar su influencia en la absorción de energía de la estructura. -Validar el modelo matemático de vuelco de la estructura mediante ensayos de secciones representativas de la estructura del vehículo y mediante el ensayo de un vehículo completo. -Realizar un estudio de las propiedades de las espumas metálicas que permitan incorporarlas como elemento de absorción de energía en el relleno de componentes de la superestructura de autobuses y autocares. -Desarrollar un modelo matemático para evaluar el aporte del relleno de espuma metálica en la absorción de energía ante solicitaciones por flexión estática y dinámica en componentes de la superestructura de autobuses o autocares. -Realizar un programa de ensayos a flexión estáticos y dinámicos para validar el modelo matemático del aporte del relleno de espuma metálica sobre componentes de la superestructura de autobuses y autocares. . -Incorporar al modelo matemático de vuelco de la estructura, los resultados obtenidos sobre componentes con relleno de espuma metálica, para evaluar el aporte en la absorción de energía. -Validar el modelo de vuelco de la estructura del autobús o autocar con relleno de espuma metálica, mediante ensayos de secciones de carrocería. ABSTRACT Accidents involving buses in which rollovers occur reveal the special aggressiveness thereof, as the statistics prove. As a measure to improve the safety of large vehicles for the transport of passengers to rollover, Regulation 66 of Geneva was approved by the United Nations. This regulation establishes the minimum requirements that structures of large vehicles must comply with respect to rollovers. The regulation 66 has been a major step forward in relation to the safety of coaches, since it specifies structural requirements to such vehicles and has been an improvement for the vehicle. In turn, as a result of compulsory installation of safety belts, there is contact between passengers and vehicle, but as it is not a rigid connection we must contemplate the percentage of the mass of the occupants that impacts on the energy absorption of the structure. Thus, the passengers’ restraining modifies the energy to absorb by the vehicle in two different aspects: On the one hand, it increases the vehicle weight and on the other the height of the center of gravity. This circumstance has taken the United Nations to elaborate Revision 01 of Regulation 66, in which it is considered that the 50 percent of passengers’ mass has a rigid joint together with the vehicle structure and, therefore, the passengers’ mass mentioned above should be highly considered if the vehicle has seat belts. In the present situation, in which limitations in vehicle weight and weight in axles are stricter, elements of comfort, safety and space for baggage are contributing to increase the weight of the vehicle. This coupled with the difficulty of introducing radical changes in the current conception of manufacturing such vehicles pose significant losses for existing manufacturers, both in product knowledge and process methodology, entails the overwhelming need to analyze and evaluate other structural alternatives without assuming relevant modifications on the products manufactured currently allowing them to adapt to the new safety requirements. Recent developments in cost-benefit processes for the production of metallic foams of low density, such as metal foams, place them as an alternative of special interest to be used as energy absorbers to strengthen structures. The filling with metal foams can be more efficient in terms of weight optimization compared with increasing thickness of the structural beams, since the energy absorption occurs in a relatively small fraction of the beams, called plastic hinges. The application of metal filling foams in vehicle structures is beginning to be used in certain areas of passenger cars, being an innovative opportunity in structures for application in buses and coaches. According to the mentioned before, and in order to come forward with a solution, this doctoral thesis has been prepared and its objectives are: - Develop a mathematical model to simulate the rollover test, considering the influence of the occupants held with seat belts to assess their influence on energy absorption structure. - Validate the mathematical model of the structure rollover by testing representative sections of the vehicle structure and by testing a complete vehicle. - Conduct a study of the properties of metal foams as possible incorporation of energy absorbing element in the filler component of the superstructure of buses and coaches. - Elaborate a mathematical model to assess the contribution of the metal foam filling in absorbing energy for static and dynamic bending loads on the components of buses or coaches superstructure. - Conduct a static and dynamic bending test program to validate the mathematical model of contribution of metal foam filling on components of the superstructure of buses and coaches bending. - To incorporate into the mathematical model of structure rollover, the results obtained on components filled with metal foam, to evaluate the contribution to the energy absorption. - Validate the rollover model structure of the bus or coach filled with metal foam through tests of bay sections. The objectives in this thesis have been achieved successfully. The contribution calculation model with metal foam filling in the vehicle structure has revealed that the filling with metal foam is more efficient than increasing thickness of the beams, as demonstrated in the experimental validation of bay sections.

Co-simulation Methodologies for Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Dynamics

In recent decades, full electric and hybrid electric vehicles have emerged as an alternative to conventional cars due to a range of factors, including environmental and economic aspects. These vehicles are the result of considerable efforts to seek ways of reducing the use of fossil fuel for vehicle propulsion. Sophisticated technologies such as hybrid and electric powertrains require careful study and optimization. Mathematical models play a key role at this point. Currently, many advanced mathematical analysis tools, as well as computer applications have been built for vehicle simulation purposes. Given the great interest of hybrid and electric powertrains, along with the increasing importance of reliable computer-based models, the author decided to integrate both aspects in the research purpose of this work. Furthermore, this is one of the first final degree projects held at the ETSII (Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineers) that covers the study of hybrid and electric propulsion systems. The present project is based on MBS3D 2.0, a specialized software for the dynamic simulation of multibody systems developed at the UPM Institute of Automobile Research (INSIA). Automobiles are a clear example of complex multibody systems, which are present in nearly every field of engineering. The work presented here benefits from the availability of MBS3D software. This program has proven to be a very efficient tool, with a highly developed underlying mathematical formulation. On this basis, the focus of this project is the extension of MBS3D features in order to be able to perform dynamic simulations of hybrid and electric vehicle models. This requires the joint simulation of the mechanical model of the vehicle, together with the model of the hybrid or electric powertrain. These sub-models belong to completely different physical domains. In fact the powertrain consists of energy storage systems, electrical machines and power electronics, connected to purely mechanical components (wheels, suspension, transmission, clutch…). The challenge today is to create a global vehicle model that is valid for computer simulation. Therefore, the main goal of this project is to apply co-simulation methodologies to a comprehensive model of an electric vehicle, where sub-models from different areas of engineering are coupled. The created electric vehicle (EV) model consists of a separately excited DC electric motor, a Li-ion battery pack, a DC/DC chopper converter and a multibody vehicle model. Co-simulation techniques allow car designers to simulate complex vehicle architectures and behaviors, which are usually difficult to implement in a real environment due to safety and/or economic reasons. In addition, multi-domain computational models help to detect the effects of different driving patterns and parameters and improve the models in a fast and effective way. Automotive designers can greatly benefit from a multidisciplinary approach of new hybrid and electric vehicles. In this case, the global electric vehicle model includes an electrical subsystem and a mechanical subsystem. The electrical subsystem consists of three basic components: electric motor, battery pack and power converter. A modular representation is used for building the dynamic model of the vehicle drivetrain. This means that every component of the drivetrain (submodule) is modeled separately and has its own general dynamic model, with clearly defined inputs and outputs. Then, all the particular submodules are assembled according to the drivetrain configuration and, in this way, the power flow across the components is completely determined. Dynamic models of electrical components are often based on equivalent circuits, where Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are applied to draw the algebraic and differential equations. Here, Randles circuit is used for dynamic modeling of the battery and the electric motor is modeled through the analysis of the equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC motor, where the power converter is included. The mechanical subsystem is defined by MBS3D equations. These equations consider the position, velocity and acceleration of all the bodies comprising the vehicle multibody system. MBS3D 2.0 is entirely written in MATLAB and the structure of the program has been thoroughly studied and understood by the author. MBS3D software is adapted according to the requirements of the applied co-simulation method. Some of the core functions are modified, such as integrator and graphics, and several auxiliary functions are added in order to compute the mathematical model of the electrical components. By coupling and co-simulating both subsystems, it is possible to evaluate the dynamic interaction among all the components of the drivetrain. ‘Tight-coupling’ method is used to cosimulate the sub-models. This approach integrates all subsystems simultaneously and the results of the integration are exchanged by function-call. This means that the integration is done jointly for the mechanical and the electrical subsystem, under a single integrator and then, the speed of integration is determined by the slower subsystem. Simulations are then used to show the performance of the developed EV model. However, this project focuses more on the validation of the computational and mathematical tool for electric and hybrid vehicle simulation. For this purpose, a detailed study and comparison of different integrators within the MATLAB environment is done. Consequently, the main efforts are directed towards the implementation of co-simulation techniques in MBS3D software. In this regard, it is not intended to create an extremely precise EV model in terms of real vehicle performance, although an acceptable level of accuracy is achieved. The gap between the EV model and the real system is filled, in a way, by introducing the gas and brake pedals input, which reflects the actual driver behavior. This input is included directly in the differential equations of the model, and determines the amount of current provided to the electric motor. For a separately excited DC motor, the rotor current is proportional to the traction torque delivered to the car wheels. Therefore, as it occurs in the case of real vehicle models, the propulsion torque in the mathematical model is controlled through acceleration and brake pedal commands. The designed transmission system also includes a reduction gear that adapts the torque coming for the motor drive and transfers it. The main contribution of this project is, therefore, the implementation of a new calculation path for the wheel torques, based on performance characteristics and outputs of the electric powertrain model. Originally, the wheel traction and braking torques were input to MBS3D through a vector directly computed by the user in a MATLAB script. Now, they are calculated as a function of the motor current which, in turn, depends on the current provided by the battery pack across the DC/DC chopper converter. The motor and battery currents and voltages are the solutions of the electrical ODE (Ordinary Differential Equation) system coupled to the multibody system. Simultaneously, the outputs of MBS3D model are the position, velocity and acceleration of the vehicle at all times. The motor shaft speed is computed from the output vehicle speed considering the wheel radius, the gear reduction ratio and the transmission efficiency. This motor shaft speed, somehow available from MBS3D model, is then introduced in the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem. In this way, MBS3D and the electrical powertrain model are interconnected and both subsystems exchange values resulting as expected with tight-coupling approach.When programming mathematical models of complex systems, code optimization is a key step in the process. A way to improve the overall performance of the integration, making use of C/C++ as an alternative programming language, is described and implemented. Although this entails a higher computational burden, it leads to important advantages regarding cosimulation speed and stability. In order to do this, it is necessary to integrate MATLAB with another integrated development environment (IDE), where C/C++ code can be generated and executed. In this project, C/C++ files are programmed in Microsoft Visual Studio and the interface between both IDEs is created by building C/C++ MEX file functions. These programs contain functions or subroutines that can be dynamically linked and executed from MATLAB. This process achieves reductions in simulation time up to two orders of magnitude. The tests performed with different integrators, also reveal the stiff character of the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem, and allow the improvement of the cosimulation process. When varying the parameters of the integration and/or the initial conditions of the problem, the solutions of the system of equations show better dynamic response and stability, depending on the integrator used. Several integrators, with variable and non-variable step-size, and for stiff and non-stiff problems are applied to the coupled ODE system. Then, the results are analyzed, compared and discussed. From all the above, the project can be divided into four main parts: 1. Creation of the equation-based electric vehicle model; 2. Programming, simulation and adjustment of the electric vehicle model; 3. Application of co-simulation methodologies to MBS3D and the electric powertrain subsystem; and 4. Code optimization and study of different integrators. Additionally, in order to deeply understand the context of the project, the first chapters include an introduction to basic vehicle dynamics, current classification of hybrid and electric vehicles and an explanation of the involved technologies such as brake energy regeneration, electric and non-electric propulsion systems for EVs and HEVs (hybrid electric vehicles) and their control strategies. Later, the problem of dynamic modeling of hybrid and electric vehicles is discussed. The integrated development environment and the simulation tool are also briefly described. The core chapters include an explanation of the major co-simulation methodologies and how they have been programmed and applied to the electric powertrain model together with the multibody system dynamic model. Finally, the last chapters summarize the main results and conclusions of the project and propose further research topics. In conclusion, co-simulation methodologies are applicable within the integrated development environments MATLAB and Visual Studio, and the simulation tool MBS3D 2.0, where equation-based models of multidisciplinary subsystems, consisting of mechanical and electrical components, are coupled and integrated in a very efficient way.

Optimización del consumo de combustible de un vehículo dependiendo de las condiciones de la carretera

El consumo de combustible en un automóvil es una característica que se intenta mejorar continuamente debido a los precios del carburante y a la creciente conciencia medioambiental. Esta tesis doctoral plantea un algoritmo de optimización del consumo que tiene en cuenta las especificaciones técnicas del vehículo, el perfil de orografía de la carretera y el tráfico presente en ella. El algoritmo de optimización calcula el perfil de velocidad óptima que debe seguir el vehículo para completar un recorrido empleando un tiempo de viaje especificado. El cálculo del perfil de velocidad óptima considera los valores de pendiente de la carretera así como también las condiciones de tráfico vehicular de la franja horaria en que se realiza el recorrido. El algoritmo de optimización reacciona ante condiciones de tráfico cambiantes y adapta continuamente el perfil óptimo de velocidad para que el vehículo llegue al destino cumpliendo el horario de llegada establecido. La optimización de consumo es aplicada en vehículos convencionales de motor de combustión interna y en vehículos híbridos tipo serie. Los datos de consumo utilizados por el algoritmo de optimización se obtienen mediante la simulación de modelos cuasi-estáticos de los vehículos. La técnica de minimización empleada por el algoritmo es la Programación Dinámica. El algoritmo divide la optimización del consumo en dos partes claramente diferenciadas y aplica la Programación Dinámica sobre cada una de ellas. La primera parte corresponde a la optimización del consumo del vehículo en función de las condiciones de tráfico. Esta optimización calcula un perfil de velocidad promedio que evita, cuando es posible, las retenciones de tráfico. El tiempo de viaje perdido durante una retención de tráfico debe recuperarse a través de un aumento posterior de la velocidad promedio que incrementaría el consumo del vehículo. La segunda parte de la optimización es la encargada del cálculo de la velocidad óptima en función de la orografía y del tiempo de viaje disponible. Dado que el consumo de combustible del vehículo se incrementa cuando disminuye el tiempo disponible para finalizar un recorrido, esta optimización utiliza factores de ponderación para modular la influencia que tiene cada una de estas dos variables en el proceso de minimización. Aunque los factores de ponderación y la orografía de la carretera condicionan el nivel de ahorro de la optimización, los perfiles de velocidad óptima calculados logran ahorros de consumo respecto de un perfil de velocidad constante que obtiene el mismo tiempo de recorrido. Las simulaciones indican que el ahorro de combustible del vehículo convencional puede lograr hasta un 8.9% mientras que el ahorro de energía eléctrica del vehículo híbrido serie un 2.8%. El algoritmo fusiona la optimización en función de las condiciones del tráfico y la optimización en función de la orografía durante el cálculo en tiempo real del perfil óptimo de velocidad. La optimización conjunta se logra cuando el perfil de velocidad promedio resultante de la optimización en función de las condiciones de tráfico define los valores de los factores de ponderación de la optimización en función de la orografía. Aunque el nivel de ahorro de la optimización conjunta depende de las condiciones de tráfico, de la orografía, del tiempo de recorrido y de las características propias del vehículo, las simulaciones indican ahorros de consumo superiores al 6% en ambas clases de vehículo respecto a optimizaciones que no logran evitar retenciones de tráfico en la carretera. ABSTRACT Fuel consumption of cars is a feature that is continuously being improved due to the fuel price and an increasing environmental awareness. This doctoral dissertation describes an optimization algorithm to decrease the fuel consumption taking into account the technical specifications of the vehicle, the terrain profile of the road and the traffic conditions of the trip. The algorithm calculates the optimal speed profile that completes a trip having a specified travel time. This calculation considers the road slope and the expected traffic conditions during the trip. The optimization algorithm is also able to react to changing traffic conditions and tunes the optimal speed profile to reach the destination within the specified arrival time. The optimization is applied on a conventional vehicle and also on a Series Hybrid Electric vehicle (SHEV). The fuel consumption optimization algorithm uses data obtained from quasi-static simulations. The algorithm is based on Dynamic Programming and divides the fuel consumption optimization problem into two parts. The first part of the optimization process reduces the fuel consumption according to foreseeable traffic conditions. It calculates an average speed profile that tries to avoid, if possible, the traffic jams on the road. Traffic jams that delay drivers result in higher vehicle speed to make up for lost time. A higher speed of the vehicle within an already defined time scheme increases fuel consumption. The second part of the optimization process is in charge of calculating the optimal speed profile according to the road slope and the remaining travel time. The optimization tunes the fuel consumption and travel time relevancies by using two penalty factors. Although the optimization results depend on the road slope and the travel time, the optimal speed profile produces improvements of 8.9% on the fuel consumption of the conventional car and of 2.8% on the spent energy of the hybrid vehicle when compared with a constant speed profile. The two parts of the optimization process are combined during the Real-Time execution of the algorithm. The average speed profile calculated by the optimization according to the traffic conditions provides values for the two penalty factors utilized by the second part of the optimization process. Although the savings depend on the road slope, traffic conditions, vehicle features, and the remaining travel time, simulations show that this joint optimization process can improve the energy consumption of the two vehicles types by more than 6%.

Telemetría de vehículos FSAE con microcontrolador PIC32 y transceptor de radio CC1101

Quizás el campo de las telecomunicaciones sea uno de los campos en el que más se ha progresado en este último siglo y medio, con la ayuda de otros campos de la ciencia y la técnica tales como la computación, la física electrónica, y un gran número de disciplinas, que se han utilizado estos últimos 150 años en conjunción para mejorarse unas con la ayuda de otras. Por ejemplo, la química ayuda a comprender y mejorar campos como la medicina, que también a su vez se ve mejorada por los progresos en la electrónica creados por los físicos y químicos, que poseen herramientas más potentes para calcular y simular debido a los progresos computacionales. Otro de los campos que ha sufrido un gran avance en este último siglo es el de la automoción, aunque estancados en el motor de combustión, los vehículos han sufrido enormes cambios debido a la irrupción de los avances en la electrónica del automóvil con multitud de sistemas ya ampliamente integrados en los vehículos actuales. La Formula SAE® o Formula Student es una competición de diseño, organizada por la SAE International (Society of Automotive Engineers) para estudiantes de universidades de todo el mundo que promueve la ingeniería a través de una competición donde los miembros del equipo diseñan, construyen, desarrollan y compiten en un pequeño y potente monoplaza. En el ámbito educativo, evitando el sistema tradicional de clases magistrales, se introducen cambios en las metodologías de enseñanza y surge el proyecto de la Fórmula Student para lograr una mejora en las acciones formativas, que permitan ir incorporando nuevos objetivos y diseñar nuevas situaciones de aprendizaje que supongan una oportunidad para el desarrollo de competencias de los alumnos, mejorar su formación como ingenieros y contrastar sus progresos compitiendo con las mejores universidades del mundo. En este proyecto se pretende dotar a los alumnos de las escuelas de ingeniería de la UPM que desarrollan el vehículo de FSAE de una herramienta de telemetría con la que evaluar y probar comportamiento del vehículo de FSAE junto con sus subsistemas que ellos mismos diseñan, con el objetivo de evaluar el comportamiento, introducir mejoras, analizar resultados de una manera más rápida y cómoda, con el objetivo de poder progresar más rápidamente en su desarrollo, recibiendo y almacenando una realimentación directa e instantánea del funcionamiento mediante la lectura de los datos que circulan por el bus CAN del vehículo. También ofrece la posibilidad de inyectar datos a los sistemas conectados al bus CAN de manera remota. Se engloba en el conjunto de proyectos de la FSAE, más concretamente en los basados en la plataforma PIC32 y propone una solución conjunta con otros proyectos o también por sí sola. Para la ejecución del proyecto se fabricó una placa compuesta de dos placas de circuito impreso, la de la estación base que envía comandos, instrucciones y datos para inyectar en el bus CAN del vehículo mediante radiofrecuencia y la placa que incorpora el vehículo que envía las tramas que circulan por el bus CAN del vehículo con los identificadores deseados, ejecuta los comandos recibidos por radiofrecuencia y salva las tramas CAN en una memoria USB o SD Card. Las dos PCBs constituyen el hardware del proyecto. El software se compone de dos programas. Un programa para la PCB del vehículo que emite los datos a la estación base, codificado en lenguaje C con ayuda del entorno de desarrollo MPLAB de Microchip. El otro programa hecho con LabView para la PCB de la estación base que recibe los datos provenientes del vehículo y los interpreta. Se propone un hardware y una capa o funciones de software para los microcontroladores PIC32 (similar al de otros proyectos del FSAE) para la transmisión de las tramas del bus CAN del vehículo de manera inalámbrica a una estación base, capaz de insertar tramas en el bus CAN del vehículo enviadas desde la estación base. También almacena estas tramas CAN en un dispositivo USB o SD Card situado en el vehículo. Para la transmisión de los datos se hizo un estudio de las frecuencias de transmisión, la legislación aplicable y los tipos de transceptores. Se optó por utilizar la banda de radiofrecuencia de uso común ISM de 433MHz mediante el transceptor integrado CC110L de Texas Instruments altamente configurable y con interfaz SPI. Se adquirieron dos parejas de módulos compatibles, con amplificador de potencia o sin él. LabView controla la estación que recoge las tramas CAN vía RF y está dotada del mismo transceptor de radio junto con un puente de comunicaciones SPI-USB, al que se puede acceder de dos diferentes maneras, mediante librerías dll, o mediante NI-VISA con transferencias RAW-USB. La aplicación desarrollada posee una interfaz configurable por el usuario para la muestra de los futuros sensores o actuadores que se incorporen en el vehículo y es capaz de interpretar las tramas CAN, mostrarlas, gráfica, numéricamente y almacenar esta información, como si fuera el cuadro de instrumentos del vehículo. Existe una limitación de la velocidad global del sistema en forma de cuello de botella que se crea debido a las limitaciones del transceptor CC110L por lo que si no se desea filtrar los datos que se crean necesarios, sería necesario aumentar el número de canales de radio para altas ocupaciones del bus CAN. Debido a la pérdida de relaciones con el INSIA, no se pudo probar de manera real en el propio vehículo, pero se hicieron pruebas satisfactorias (hasta 1,6 km) con una configuración de tramas CAN estándar a una velocidad de transmisión de 1 Mbit/s y un tiempo de bit de 1 microsegundo. El periférico CAN del PIC32 se programará para cumplir con estas especificaciones de la ECU del vehículo, que se presupone que es la MS3 Sport de Bosch, de la que LabView interpretará las tramas CAN recibidas de manera inalámbrica. Para poder probar el sistema, ha sido necesario reutilizar el hardware y adaptar el software del primer prototipo creado, que emite tramas CAN preprogramadas con una latencia también programable y que simulará al bus CAN proporcionando los datos a transmitir por el sistema que incorpora el vehículo. Durante el desarrollo de este proyecto, en las etapas finales, el fabricante del puente de comunicaciones SPI-USB MCP2210 liberó una librería (dll) compatible y sin errores, por lo que se nos ofrecía una oportunidad interesante para la comparación de las velocidades de acceso al transceptor de radio, que se presuponía y se comprobó más eficiente que la solución ya hecha mediante NI-VISA. ABSTRACT. The Formula SAE competition is an international university applied to technological innovation in vehicles racing type formula, in which each team, made up of students, should design, construct and test a prototype each year within certain rules. The challenge of FSAE is that it is an educational project farther away than a master class. The goal of the present project is to make a tool for other students to use it in his projects related to FSAE to test and improve the vehicle, and, the improvements that can be provided by the electronics could be materialized in a victory and win the competition with this competitive advantage. A telemetry system was developed. It sends the data provided by the car’s CAN bus through a radio frequency transceiver and receive commands to execute on the system, it provides by a base station on the ground. Moreover, constant verification in real time of the status of the car or data parameters like the revolutions per minute, pressure from collectors, water temperature, and so on, can be accessed from the base station on the ground, so that, it could be possible to study the behaviour of the vehicle in early phases of the car development. A printed circuit board, composed of two boards, and two software programs in two different languages, have been developed, and built for the project implementation. The software utilized to design the PCB is Orcad10.5/Layout. The base station PCB on a PC receives data from the PCB connected to the vehicle’s CAN bus and sends commands like set CAN filters or masks, activate data logger or inject CAN frames. This PCB is connected to a PC via USB and contains a bridge USB-SPI to communicate with a similar transceiver on the vehicle PCB. LabView controls this part of the system. A special virtual Instrument (VI) had been created in order to add future new elements to the vehicle, is a dashboard, which reads the data passed from the main VI and represents them graphically to studying the behaviour of the car on track. In this special VI other alums can make modifications to accommodate the data provided from the vehicle CAN’s bus to new elements on the vehicle, show or save the CAN frames in the form or format they want. Two methods to access to SPI bus of CC110l RF transceiver over LabView have been developed with minimum changes between them. Access through NI-VISA (Virtual Instrument Software Architecture) which is a standard for configuring, programming, USB interfaces or other devices in National Instruments LabView. And access through DLL (dynamic link library) supplied by the manufacturer of the bridge USB-SPI, Microchip. Then the work is done in two forms, but the dll solution developed shows better behaviour, and increase the speed of the system because has less overload of the USB bus due to a better efficiency of the dll solution versus VISA solution. The PCB connected to the vehicle’s CAN bus receives commands from the base station PCB on a PC, and, acts in function of the command or execute actions like to inject packets into CAN bus or activate data logger. Also sends over RF the CAN frames present on the bus, which can be filtered, to avoid unnecessary radio emissions or overflowing the RF transceiver. This PCB consists of two basic pieces: A microcontroller with 32 bit architecture PIC32MX795F512L from Microchip and the radio transceiver integrated circuit CC110l from Texas Instruments. The PIC32MX795F512L has an integrated CAN and several peripherals like SPI controllers that are utilized to communicate with RF transceiver and SD Card. The USB controller on the PIC32 is utilized to store CAN data on a USB memory, and change notification peripheral is utilized like an external interrupt. Hardware for other peripherals is accessible. The software part of this PCB is coded in C with MPLAB from Microchip, and programming over PICkit 3 Programmer, also from Microchip. Some of his libraries have been modified to work properly with this project and other was created specifically for this project. In the phase for RF selection and design is made a study to clarify the general aspects of regulations for the this project in order to understand it and select the proper band, frequency, and radio transceiver for the activities developed in the project. From the different options available it selects a common use band ICM, with less regulation and free to emit with restrictions and disadvantages like high occupation. The transceiver utilized to transmit and receive the data CC110l is an integrated circuit which needs fewer components from Texas Instruments and it can be accessed through SPI bus. Basically is a state machine which changes his state whit commands received over an SPI bus or internal events. The transceiver has several programmable general purpose Inputs and outputs. These GPIOs are connected to PIC32 change notification input to generate an interrupt or connected to GPIO to MCP2210 USB-SPI bridge to inform to the base station for a packet received. A two pair of modules of CC110l radio module kit from different output power has been purchased which includes an antenna. This is to keep away from fabrication mistakes in RF hardware part or designs, although reference design and gerbers files are available on the webpage of the chip manufacturer. A neck bottle is present on the complete system, because the maximum data rate of CC110l transceiver is a half than CAN bus data rate, hence for high occupation of CAN bus is recommendable to filter the data or add more radio channels, because the buffers can’t sustain this load along the time. Unfortunately, during the development of the project, the relations with the INSIA, who develops the vehicle, was lost, for this reason, will be made impossible to test the final phases of the project like integration on the car, final test of integration, place of the antenna, enclosure of the electronics, connectors selection, etc. To test or evaluate the system, it was necessary to simulate the CAN bus with a hardware to feed the system with entry data. An early hardware prototype was adapted his software to send programed CAN frames at a fixed data rate and certain timing who simulate several levels of occupation of the CAN Bus. This CAN frames emulates the Bosch ECU MS3 Sport.

Trans arquitectura : imaginación, invención e individuación del objeto técnico arquitectónico : transferencia tecnológica desde la industria del transporte al proyecto arquitectónico (1900-1973)

Se presenta la tesis doctoral, titulada ‘TRANS Arquitectura. Imaginación, Invención e individuación del objeto tecnico arquitectónico. Transferencia tecnológica desde la Industria del Transporte al Proyecto de Arquitectura [1900-1973]'’, que aborda la relación entre la Arquitectura y el Objeto Técnico durante la Modernidad.1 La temática de la tesis gravita en torno a la cultura técnica, la cultura material y la historia de la Tecnología del siglo XX. Hipótesis Se sostiene aquí la existencia de unas arquitecturas que se definen como Objetos Técnicos. Para demostrarlo se estudia si éstas comparten las mismas propiedades ontológicas de los objetos técnicos. Industria y Arquitectura La historia de la Arquitectura Moderna es la historia de la Industria Moderna y sus instalaciones industriales, sus productos y artefactos o sus procedimientos y procesos productivos. Fábricas, talleres, acerías, astilleros, minas, refinerías, laboratorios, automóviles, veleros, aviones, dirigibles, transbordadores, estaciones espaciales, electrodomésticos, ordenadores personales, teléfonos móviles, motores, baterías, turbinas, aparejos, cascos, chassis, carrocerías, fuselajes, composites, materiales sintéticos, la cadena de montaje, la fabricación modular, la cadena de suministros, la ingeniería de procesos, la obsolescencia programada… Todos estos objetos técnicos evolucionan constantemente gracias al inconformismo de la imaginación humana, y como intermediarios que son, cambian nuestra manera de relacionarnos con el mundo. La Arquitectura, al igual que otros objetos técnicos, media entre el hombre y el mundo. Con el objetivo de reducir el ámbito tan vasto de la investigación, éste se ha filtrado a partir de varios parámetros y cualidades de la Industria, estableciendo un marco temporal, vinculado con un determinado modo de hacer, basado en la ciencia. El inicio del desarrollo industrial basado en el conocimiento científico se da desde la Segunda Revolución Industrial, por consenso en el último tercio del siglo XIX. Este marco centra el foco de la tesis en el proceso de industrialización experimentado por la Arquitectura desde entonces, y durante aproximadamente un siglo, recorriendo la Modernidad durante los 75 primeros años del siglo XX. Durante este tiempo, los arquitectos han realizado transferencias de imágenes, técnicas, procesos y materiales desde la Industria, que ha servido como fuente de conocimiento para la Arquitectura, y ha evolucionado como disciplina. Para poder abordar más razonablemente un periodo tan amplio, se ha elegido el sector industrial del transporte, que históricamente ha sido, no sólo fuente de inspiración para los Arquitectos, sino también fuente de transferencia tecnológica para la Arquitectura. Conjuntos técnicos como los astilleros, fábricas de automóviles o hangares de aviones, individuos técnicos como barcos, coches o aviones, y elementos técnicos como las estructuras que les dan forma y soporte, son todos ellos objetos técnicos que comparten propiedades con las arquitecturas que aquí se presentan. La puesta en marcha de la cadena móvil de montaje en 1913, se toma instrumentalmente como primer foco temporal desde el que relatar la evolución de numerosos objetos técnicos en la Primera Era de la Máquina; un segundo foco se sitúa en 19582, año de la creación de la Agencia Espacial norteamericana (NASA), que sirve de referencia para situar la Segunda Era de la Máquina. La mayoría de los objetos técnicos arquitectónicos utilizados para probar la hipótesis planteada, gravitan en torno a estas fechas, con un rango de más menos 25 años, con una clara intención de sincronizar el tiempo de la acción y el tiempo del pensamiento. Arquitectura y objeto técnico Los objetos técnicos han estado siempre relacionados con la Arquitectura. En el pasado, el mismo técnico que proyectaba y supervisaba una estructura, se ocupaba de inventar los ingenios y máquinas para llevarlas a cabo. Los maestros de obra, eran verdaderos ‘agentes de transferencia tecnológica’ de la Industria y su conocimiento relacionaba técnicas de fabricación de diferentes objetos técnicos. Brunelleschi inventó varia grúas para construir la cúpula de Santa Maria dei Fiori (ca.1461), seguramente inspirado por la reedición del tratado de Vitruvio, De Architectura (15 A.C.), cuyo último capítulo estaba dedicado a las máquinas de la arquitectura clásica romana, y citaba a inventores como Archimedes. El arquitecto florentino fue el primero en patentar un invento en 1421: una embarcación anfibia que serviría para transportar mármol de Carrara por el río Arno, para su obra en Florencia. J. Paxton. Crystal Palace. London 1851. Viga-columna. Robert McCormick. Cosechadora 1831. 2ª patente, 1845. La Segunda Revolución Industrial nos dejó un primitivo ejemplo moderno de la relación entre la Arquitectura y el objeto técnico. El mayor edificio industrializado hasta la fecha, el Crystal Palace de Londres, obra de Joseph Paxton, fue montado en Londres con motivo de la Gran Exposición sobre la Industria Mundial de 1851, y siempre estará asociado a la cosechadora McCormick, merecedora del Gran Premio del Jurado. De ambos objetos técnicos, podrían destacarse características similares, como su origen industrial, y ser el complejo resultado de un ensamblaje simple de elementos técnicos. Desde la entonces, el desarrollo tecnológico ha experimentado una aceleración continuada, dando lugar a una creciente especialización y separación del conocimiento sobre las técnicas antes naturalmente unidas. Este proceso se ha dado a expensas del conocimiento integrador y en detrimento de la promiscuidad entre la Industria y la Arquitectura. Este es, sin lugar a dudas, un signo consustancial a nuestro tiempo, que provoca un natural interés de los arquitectos y otros tecnólogos, por las transferencias, trans e inter-disciplinareidades que tratan de re-establecer los canales de relación entre los diferentes campos del conocimiento. La emergencia de objetos técnicos como los vehículos modernos a principios del siglo XX (el automóvil, el trasatlántico, el dirigible o el aeroplano) está relacionada directamente con la Arquitectura de la Primera Era de la Máquina. La fascinación de los arquitectos modernos por aquellas nuevas estructuras habitables, se ha mantenido durante más de un siglo, con diferente intensidad y prestando atención a unos objetos técnicos u otros, oscilando entre el dominio del valor simbólico de los vehículos como objetosimágenes, durante el periodo heroico de la Primera Era de la Máquina, y la mirada más inquisitiva durante la Segunda, que perseguía un conocimiento más profundo de la organización de los mismos y del sistema técnico en el que estaban incluidos. La relación homóloga que existe entre arquitecturas y vehículos, por su condición de estructuras habitables, es algo de sobra conocido desde que Le Corbusier utilizara aquellas imágenes de barcos, coches y aviones para ilustrar su manifiesto Vers une architecture, de 1923. Los vehículos modernos han sido los medios con los que transmitir los conceptos que ansiaban transformar las propiedades tradicionales de la Arquitectura, relativas a su factura, su habitabilidad, su duración, su funcionalidad o su estética. Destaca particularmente el caso del automóvil en las décadas de los años 30 y 50, y los vehículos del programa espacial en las décadas de los 60 y 70. El conocimiento y la documentación previa de estos hechos, fueron un buen indicio para identificar y confirmar que el sector industrial del transporte, era un especialmente trascendente y fértil proveedor de casos de transferencia tecnológica para la Arquitectura. La tradición Moderna inaugurada por Le Corbusier en los años 20, ha sido mantenida y defendida por una multitud de arquitectos modernos como Albert Frey, Richard Neutra, Ralph Soriano, Charles Eames o Craig Ellwood, cuyo trabajo, animado por el legado de anteriores tecnólogos como Bucky Fuller o Jean Prouvé, fue fundamental y referencia obligada para la siguiente generación de arquitectos como Cedric Price, Archigram, Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Jean Kaplicky o Richard Horden, entre otros. Todos ellos han contribuido a engrosar el imaginario del objeto técnico, aportando sus obras arquitectónicas. Estos arquitectos que aparecen repetidamente en el discurrir de la tesis, pertenecen a un mismo linaje, y son agrupados según una estructura ‘genealógica’, que se ha denominado ‘Estirpe Técnica’. Unidos por intereses comunes y similares enfoques o actitudes ante el proyecto de arquitectura, entendida como objeto Técnico, han operado mediante la práctica de la transferencia tecnológica, sin limitarse a las técnicas compositivas propias de la disciplina arquitectónica. Durante la investigación, se ha recopilado una selección de menciones explícitas -hechas por arquitectos- sobre otros objetos técnicos para referirse a la Arquitectura, mostrando las constantes y las variaciones de sus intereses a lo largo del siglo, lo que nos ha llevado a conclusiones como por ejemplo, que los conjuntos técnicos (fábricas de zepelines, aviones, automóviles o trasatlánticos) eran tomados por los arquitectos de la primera Modernidad, como un modelo imaginario, formal y compositivo, mientras que los de la Segunda Era de la Máquina los tomaban como modelo espacial y organizativo para la arquitectura. La mencionada estirpe de tecnólogos incluye líneas de descendencia conocidas, como: EiffelSuchovBehrens GropiusMiesLeCorbusierLodsProuve, en la Europa continental, o una rama británica como: LoudonPaxtonWilliamsStirlingGowan SmithsonsPriceArchigramFosterRogersPiano KaplickyHorden. También podemos encontrar conexiones intercontinentales como Fuller EamesRudolphFosterRogers, o ramificaciones menos previsibles como: LeRicolaisKahn PianoKaplicky, o LeCorbusierFreyLacaton Vassal… Seguramente muchos más merecerían incluirse en esta lista, y de hecho, la tesis asume la imposibilidad de incluirlo todo (por motivos prácticos) aunque contempla la posibilidad de ser ampliada en un futuro. Con lo aquí incluido, se pretende mostrar la continuidad en los enfoques, planteamientos y técnicas de proyectos aplicadas, de los que podemos deducir algunas conclusiones, como por ejemplo, que en los periodos inmediatamente posteriores a las dos Guerras Mundiales, aumentó la intensidad de aportaciones de nuevas imágenes de vehículos, al imaginario del objeto técnico utilizado por los arquitectos, a través de publicaciones y exposiciones. Hoy, cien años después de que Ford pusiera en marcha la cadena móvil de montaje, aún encontramos viva esta tradición en las palabras de un arquitecto, Richard Horden, cuyo trabajo porta consigo –como la información embebida en los elementos técnicos- toda una cultura técnica de una tradición moderna. Horden representa uno de los exponentes de la que he denominado estirpe de tecnólogos. Es por ello que he querido concluir la tesis con una entrevista, realizada en Mayo de 2015, en su estudio de Berkeley Square en Londres (ver Apéndices). Guías Para el desarrollo de la presente tesis, se ha tomado, como principal obra de referencia, otra tesis, titulada El modo de existencia de los objetos técnicos, leída y publicada en 1958 por el filósofo francés Gilbert Simondon [1924-89], dedicada a la ontología del objeto técnico. Esta obra enmarca el enfoque intelectual de la tesis, que entronca con la fenomenología, para movilizar una visión particular de la Arquitectura, a la que sirve como modelo de análisis ontológico para estudiar sus procesos de génesis, invención e individuación. Para el desarrollo de éstos, se ha utilizado como complemento bibliográfico, otra obra del mismo autor, titulada Imaginación e invención 1965-66. En cuanto a las fuentes historiográficas disciplinares, se ha elegido utilizar a Reyner P. Banham [1922-1988] y a Martin E. Pawley [1938-2008] como guías a través de la arquitectura del siglo XX. Sus crónicas sobre la Primera y Segunda Era de la Máquina3 y su obra crítica, han servido como índices desde los que reconstruir el imaginario del objeto técnico moderno, y del que aprovisionarse de proyectos y obras de Arquitectura como casos de estudio para la tesis. Estas obras han servido además como índices de otra bibliografía, que ha sido complementaria a la de éstos. Objetivos de la Tesis El principal objetivo de la tesis es demostrar la hipótesis: si una obra de arquitectura puede ser considerada un objeto técnico y bajo qué condiciones, construyendo un criterio que permita reconocer cuándo una obra de Arquitectura responde a la definición de objeto técnico. Otro objetivo es demostrar la importancia y potencia de la Transferencia tecnológica en el proceso evolutivo de la Arquitectura, y para ello se presentan ejemplos de una metodología de proyecto por ensamblaje, que Martin Pawley denominaba ‘Design by Assembly’. También es un objetivo el de reconstruir un Atlas del Imaginario del objeto técnico moderno, con el fin de conocer mejor las causas, razones y finalidades que llevaron a los arquitectos modernos a perseguir una arquitectura como objeto técnico. Este Atlas permite relacionar panópticamente los distintos objetos técnicos entre sí, revelando la verdadera importancia y trascendencia de aquéllos y las arquitecturas con las que se relacionan. En él, las arquitecturas vuelven a situarse en el contexto más extenso y complejo de la industria y la historia de la tecnología, al que siempre pertenecieron. De este modo, éstas son capaces de desvelar todo el conocimiento -en forma de información- que portan en su propio código ‘genético’, desplegando capítulos completos de cultura tecnológica, tan antigua como la Humanidad y en constante y creciente evolución. Estructura de la tesis Tras una Introducción en la que se presentan algunos de los conceptos principales que se instrumentalizan en la tesis sobre la ontología Simondoniana del objeto técnico y sobre la transferencia tecnológica aplicada al proyecto de Arquitectura, el texto principal de la tesis consta de tres partes: La primera se dedica a la Imaginación, una segunda parte a la Invención y una tercera a Individuación o evolución del objeto técnico. Se termina con una Discusión de la tesis y un apartado de Conclusiones. En la Introducción al objeto técnico, éste se define ontológicamente y se distinguen sus diferentes categorías (conjuntos técnicos, individuos técnicos y elementos técnicos). Se explica el proceso de génesis del objeto técnico y sus fases de imaginación, invención e individuación. También se presentan los conceptos de transducción, tecnicidad y sistema técnico, fundamentales para entender el concepto de transferencia tecnológica que se desarrollará después. La concretización, explica el modo particular de individuación y evolución de los objetos técnicos, un proceso por el que las diferentes partes de un objeto técnico, se integran y tienden hacia la propia convergencia. Aquí se comprueba la efectividad del concepto simondoniano de Transducción, como señal o información transmitida y transformada, y se relaciona con la Transferencia Tecnológica - un proceso sinergético, por el que un sector industrial se beneficia del desarrollo de otro sector- a la que se han referido explícitamente arquitectos e historiadores para explicar sus obras, durante la Segunda Era de la Máquina, y que es determinante para el desarrollo de la Industria. La transferencia tecnológica sería la transmisión del conjunto de conocimientos sobre la técnica, que incluyen su esfera fáctica, pero también la esfera sensible de la experiencia. En su aplicación a la arquitectura, las transferencias se han clasificado según tres tipos: Eidéticas, Tectónicas, Orgánicas. En la primera parte dedicada a la Imaginación del objeto técnico arquitectónico se realiza una reconstrucción ‘arqueológica’ –y parcial- del imaginario del objeto técnico moderno, con la intención de conocer mejor su génesis y la relación con otros objetos técnicos. Las fuentes de ese imaginario se buscan en las instalaciones de la Industria de principios de siglo XX, en particular en las fábricas de vehículos, con la finalidad de comprobar hasta qué punto, esos objetos técnicos fueron importantes para imaginar la Arquitectura moderna. La reconstrucción se continúa hasta la Segunda Era de la Máquina, cuando una nueva mirada más inquisitiva y precisa, se dirige a otras fábricas, vehículos y componentes, interesándose por sus cualidades materiales y organizativas. Transferencias Eidéticas, que operan desde un conocimiento intuitivo y son útiles para transmitir información sobre la esencia de un objeto técnico que sirve de fuente. Conceptos abstractos se transmiten por medio de las imágenes—objeto, para producir una transformación en su equivalente arquitectónico. Fruto de la investigación, se han detectado un grupo de conceptos que han sido objeto de transferencias tecnológicas de naturaleza eidética, provenientes del imaginario del objeto técnico moderno: FABRICADO, HABITABLE, FUNCIONAL, EFICIENTE, OBSOLESCENTE y BELLO. En la segunda parte dedicada a la Invención del objeto técnico arquitectónico, las transferencias también pueden ser Tectónicas, cuando lo que se transmite es una técnica constructiva o estructural aplicada mediante MATERIALES artificiales (como los metales, los composites como el ferrocemento, y el plywood, o las aleaciones como el aluminio) o mediante el ensamblaje de ESTRUCTURAS o partes componentes de otro objeto técnico, (como cascos, fuselajes, carrocerías o aparejos) y tiene como resultado la invención de un nuevo objeto técnico arquitectónico. En la tercera parte dedicada a la individuación, se abordan las transferencias ORGÁNICAS, lo que se transfiere es una técnica organizativa, aplicada a través de PROCEDIMIENTOS que definen la actividad del arquitecto como tecnólogo e inventor de objetos técnicos. Estos procedimientos tienen un efecto transformador en tres instituciones tradicionales para la Arquitectura: la Escuela, el Estudio y la Obra, y sus resultados se resumen en nuevos modelos de organización de la Educación de la Arquitectura, con la aparición de los Talleres de proyectos; nuevos modelos de organización del ejercicio de arquitecto: la Oficina técnica; nuevos modelos de organización del espacio, basados en la organización espacial de la Industria, que da lugar a patrones o Matrices espaciales; un nuevo modelo de organización del proyecto, que utiliza las herramientas gráficas de la industria y el ensamblaje como metodología; y un nuevo modelo de producción arquitectónica, basado en la Industrialización. Tras explicar los conceptos y la génesis del ensamblaje y el montaje, se presenta el proyecto por ensamblaje (Design by assembly) como un método que promueve la invención arquitectónica. Se demuestra utilizando algunos casos analizados en la tesis, en los que se ha realizado alguna transferencia conceptual, constructiva u organizativa. Tras analizar las arquitecturas estudiadas en la tesis, se ha utilizado el método genético propuesto por Simondon para comprender cada evolución particular, reconstruyendo las líneas genealógicas hasta sus ancestros, e identificando una serie de linajes genéticos, que corresponderían con los conjuntos técnicos estudiados en la tesis: el astillero, la fábrica de coches, y la fábrica de aeronaves: los Ancestros de la Modernidad. Los sistemas de organización espacial de estos conjuntos técnicos, están directamente relacionados con el objeto técnico que se produce en él. A partir de ellos se definen una serie de matrices operativas (MILL, SHOP, SHED), que sirven para hacer una taxonomía del objeto técnico arquitectónico. Esto se ejemplifica con algunos proyectos de Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Nicholas Grimshaw, Jean Kaplicky y Richard Horden. Tesis: Comprobación de la hipótesis Simondon definía ontológicamente el Objeto técnico como aquello de lo que existe génesis y que desarrolla una tendencia hacia la solidaridad y unidad. Para que una Arquitectura pueda ser reconocida como un Objeto técnico, se deben dar una serie de condiciones, en las sucesivas fases que intervienen en su modo de existencia: Imaginación. Estas arquitecturas remiten a un imaginario protagonizado por imágenes-objeto de otros objetos técnicos (conjuntos técnicos, individuos técnicos y elementos técnicos). Esas imágenes-objeto vehiculizan una transferencia eidética de los objetos técnicos que simbolizan. Invención. Estas arquitecturas son el resultado de transferencias tectónicas, que se producen durante el proceso de proyecto, mediante el ensamblaje de materiales, componentes o procedimientos, utilizados en la industria para la producción de otros objetos técnicos. Individuación. Estas arquitecturas evolucionan y se individualizan por concretización, un proceso por el que los objetos técnicos se organizan para seguir su tendencia hacia la integración de sus partes, con el fin de alcanzar la convergencia de funciones en una única estructura. Esta integración tiende hacia la naturalización del objeto técnico, mediante la inclusión simbiótica de sus medios naturales asociados. En este caso, veremos cómo se ha producido transferencias orgánicas, o lo que es lo mismo, cómo los objetos técnicos –en el nivel de los conjuntos técnicos- se han tomado como modelo de organización por la arquitectura. Tras comprobar que de ellas existe una génesis, que evoluciona por las fases de imaginación e invención y concretización, se analiza su imaginario, su materialidad, sus estructuras y su organización, con el fin de detectar patrones y principios organizativos comunes a otros objetos técnicos. Interés de la tesis Desde el comienzo del nuevo siglo, diversos autores han demostrado un renovado interés por definir qué es el proyecto, qué lo constituye para qué sirve. Las aproximaciones al tema provienen de la filosofía analítica (Galle, 2008) o de la filosofía de la tecnología (Verbeek, 2005; Vermaas, 2009) y a menudo versan sobre la relación entre diseño y la cultura material (Dorschel 2003, Boradkar 2010 o Preston 2012). Es importante indicar el reciente y también creciente interés suscitado por la obra del filósofo francés, Gilbert Simondon [1924-1989], reconocida por su importante contribución a la filosofía de la técnica y la fenomenología, y por la influencia en el pensamiento de filósofos como Gilles Deleuze, autor presente en multitud de tesis doctorales e investigaciones teóricas llevadas a cabo en las principales escuelas de Arquitectura de todo el mundo desde los años 90 hasta el presente. La reedición y traducción de la obra de Simondon (ing. 1980, esp. 2008) ha recibido la atención de filósofos actuales como Paolo Virno, Bruno Latour o Bernard Stiegler, que siguen recurriendo a su estudio y análisis para avanzar en su pensamiento, estando por tanto presente en el debate contemporáneo sobre la técnica. Tras su reciente traducción al español, el pensamiento de Simondon ha despertado un gran interés en América Latina, como demuestra la organización de varios congresos y simposios, así como la proliferación de publicaciones en torno a su obra y pensamiento. Las futuras traducciones del resto de sus principales obras, asegurarán una introducción cada vez mayor en la comunidad académica. Se ha procurado presentar una mirada alternativa de la Historia de la Arquitectura Moderna, utilizando como guía a un cronista como Reyner Banham. La Era de la Máquina se ha cruzado con la Mecanología y el “vitalismo técnico” de Simondon, obteniendo como resultado una interpretación fresca, renovada y optimista de algunas de las más importantes obras de Arquitectura del siglo XX, que seguro contribuirán al desarrollo de la del siglo XXI, inmerso ya en el cambio de paradigma hacia la sostenibilidad y la ecología. ABSTRACT 'TRANS architecture. Imagination, invention and technical individuation of the architectural technical object. Technology transfer from the Transport Industry to Architectural Design [1900- 1973]' is a thesis dealing with the relationship between Architecture and the Technical Object during Modernity5. The theme of the thesis revolves around the technical culture, material culture and the history of twentieth-century technology. Hypothesis Held here is the existence of some architectures defined as technical objects. A study has been developed to prove if those architectures share the ontological properties of a technical object. Industry and Architecture The history of Modern Architecture is also the history of modern industry and its facilities, its products and devices, its procedures and production processes. Factories, workshops, steel mills, shipyards, mines, refineries, laboratories, cars, yachts, airplanes, airships, shuttles, space stations, home appliances, personal computers, mobile phones, motors, batteries, turbines, rigs, hulls, chassis, bodies, fuselages , composites and synthetic materials, the assembly line, modular manufacturing, the supply chain, process engineering, the planned obsolescence ... All these technical objects are constantly evolving thanks to the inconsistency of the human imagination and, as our intermediates, keep changing our way of relating and being in the world. Architecture, alike other technical objects, mediates between man and the World. In order to frame the vast field of the research, it has been filtered according to various parameters and qualities of Industry, establishing also a time frame which is related to a particular science-based way of making. The start of an industrial development, based on scientific knowledge is given from the Second Industrial Revolution -by consensus on the last third of the nineteenth century. This frame puts the focus of the thesis in the process of industrialization experienced by the Architecture of at least one century, and tours through Modernity during the first 75 years of the twenieth century. During this time, architects have made transfers of images, techniques, processes and materials from Industry, serving as a source of knowledge and thus allowing Architecture to evolve as a discipline. To reasonably address the enormous scope of the thesis, the industrial sector of transportation has ben chosen. It is not only a historical source of inspiration for architects, but also a traditional source of technology transfer for Modern Architecture. Technical sets such as shipyards, automobile factories or aircraft hangars, technical individuals as boats, cars or planes, and technical elements like the structures shaping and supporting them, are all technical objects which share properties with the architectures here presented. The launch of the moving assembly line in 1913, is instrumentally taken as a first time focus, from which to describe the evolution of many technical objects in the First Machine Age; a second focus could be found in 19586, year of the creation of the North American Space Agency (NASA), serving as a reference to the Second Machine Age. Most architectural technical objects used to test the hypothesis, gravitate around this second focus, in a range of plus or minus 25 years, with a clear intention to synchronize the time for action and time of thought. Architecture and Technical Object Technical objects have always been related to Architecture. In the past, the same technician who planned and oversaw a building structure, invented the devices and machines to carry them out. The foremen were the true 'technology transfer agents' from Industry. Their knowledge naturally related different manufacturing techniques to make diverse technical objects. Brunelleschi invented various cranes to build the dome of Santa Maria dei Fiori in Florence (ca.1461). Probably inspired by the reedition of Vitruvius’ treaty De Architectura (15 BC), whose last chapter was dedicated to the machines of classical Roman architecture and quoted inventors as Archimedes, the florentine architect was the first to patent an invention in 1421: an amphibious craft serving as a means of transportation for Carrara marble along the Arno river. At the daw of the Second Industrial Revolution, whose development was based on the scientific knowledge, we find a primitive modern example of the relationship between Architecture and a Technical Object: The Crystal Palace, built in London for the Great Exhibition of 1851 World Industry and designed by Joseph Paxton, was the largest to date industrialized building, and it will be always associated with the McCormick Reaper, worthy of the Grand Jury’s Prize. Similar characteristics could be emphasized of both technical objects, such as their industrial origin and for being be the complex result of a simple assembly of technical elements. Since then, technological development has experienced a continued acceleration, resulting in an increasing specialization and separation of knowledge about techniques which were naturally attached in the past. This process has happened at the expense of an integrative knowledge and against promiscuity between Industry and Architecture. This is, undoubtedly, an inherent sign of our time, which causes the natural and interest of architects and other technicians about transfers, trans-disciplinarity and inter-disciplinarity, as a reaction to reestablish channels of relationships between these different fields of knowledge. The emergence of technical objects as modern vehicles in the early twentieth century (the car, the Ocean liner, the airship or the airplane) is directly related to the Architecture of the First Machine Age. Modern architects’ fascination for those new ‘inhabitable’ structures has been maintained for over a century, with different intensity and paying attention to one and other technical objets, ranging from the domain of the symbolic value of the vehicles as objectsimages, during heroic period of the First Machine Age, to the more inquisitive glance characterizing the Second Machine Age, which sought a deeper understanding of the organization of such objects and the technical system to which they belonged. The periods immediately following both World Wars, showed a concentrated effort to bring new images of vehicles to the imaginary of architects, by means of publications and exhibitions. The homologous relationship between architectures and vehicles, in their capacity as living structures, is something well known since Le Corbusier used the images of cars, boats and airplanes to illustrate his manifesto, Towards an architecture in 1923. Modern vehicles have been the means by which to convey the concepts eager to transform the traditional attributes of Architecture: those relating to its manufacture, habitability, duration, functionality or aesthetics. The automobile stands out during the 30s and 50s, and the new vehicles of the Space Program satnd in the 60s and 70s. The prior knowledge and documentation of these events were a good indication to identify the industrial sector of Transportation as one of especial importance and as a fertile provider of technology transfer cases for Architecture. The Modern tradition, inaugurated by Le Corbusier in the 20s, has been maintained and defended by a host of modern architects like Albert Frey, Richard Neutra, Ralph Soriano, Charles Eames and Craig Ellwood, whose work - inspired by the legacy of previous technologists as Bucky Fuller or Jean Prouvé- was fundamental and a mandatory reference for the next generation of architects like Cedric Price, Archigram, Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Jean and Richard Horden Kaplicky, among others. They have all contributed to increase the imaginary of the technical object, adding to it their architectural works. In the passage of the thesis, we repeatedly find a number of architects, who have been grouped according to a 'genealogical' structure, which has been called 'Technical Lineage'. Gathered by common interests and similar views or attitudes to the architectural design, understood as a technical object, they have operated through the practice of technology transfer, without limiting itself to specific compositional techniques of the architectural discipline. During the investigation, a selection of explicit references made by those architects, about other technical objects referring to their Architecture, has been compiled, showing constants and variations in their interests throughout the century, which has led to conclusions such as, having technicians sets (zeppelins factories, airships factories, car factories and shipyards) been taken by the architects of the first Modernity, as their main formal, compositional and imaginary models, while the Second Machine Age had taken them as a spatial and organizational model for their architecture. The above mentioned lineage of technologists includes weel-known ‘seed lines’ as: Eiffel- Suchov-Behrens, Gropius-Mies-LeCorbusier- Lods-Prouve, in continental Europe; British branches as Loudon-Paxton-Williams-Stirling- Gowan-Smithsons-Price-Archigram-Foster- Rogers-Piano-Kaplicky-Horden. And we could also find intercontinental connections as Fuller- Eames-Rudolph-Foster-Rogers, or other less predictable ramifications as LeRicolais-Kahn Piano-Kaplicky, or LeCorbusier-Frey-Lacaton & Vassal... Many more would surely deserve to be included in this list, and indeed, the thesis assumes the impossibility of including them all (for practical reasons) and even contemplates possible future extensions. The material included herein is to demonstrate the continuity in the approaches, statements and in the applied architectural design techniques, from which we can draw some conclusions. Today, one hundred years after Ford put up the moving assembly line, we still find this tradition alive in the words of the architect Richard Horden, whose work carries with it –as with the information embedded in every technical element- the whole techncial culture of a modern tradition. Horden is represented here as one of the exponents of what I have called the lineage of technologists. That is why I wanted to conclude the thesis with an interview to Richard Horden, held in May 2015 in his studio in London's Berkeley Square (see Appendices). Guides For the development of this thesis, another thesis, entitled: The mode of existence of technical objects, is taken as the main reference work. Read and published in 1958 by the French philosopher Gilbert Simondon [1924- 1989], it was dedicated to the ontology of the technical object. This work frames the intellectual approach of the thesis, which connects with phenomenology to mobilize a particular vision of Architecture. It is used as a model of ontological analysis to study its genesis, invention and evolutionary processes. To develop these, another work by the same author, titled Imagination and Invention (1965- 1966) has been used as a bibliographical complement. As for the disciplinary historical sources, Reyner P. Banham [1922-1988] and Martin E. Pawley [1938-2008] have been chosen as guides through the modern Architecture of the twentieth century. Their cronical reports on the First and Second Machine Age and their critical works have served as an index from which to reconstruct the imaginary of the modern technical object in the Machine Age7, and to stock up on projects and works of architecture, used as case studies for the thesis. These works have also been used as triggers for other literatures, which has been complementary to the former. Objectives of the Thesis The main objective of the thesis is to prove its hypothesis: if a work of architecture can be considered a technical object and under what conditions, building then a criterion for recognizing when a work of architecture meets the definition of a technical object. Another aim is to demonstrate the importance and power of Technology Transfer in the evolutionary process of Architecture, and to do it, some examples of a methodology for architectural design that Martin Pawley called 'Design by Assembly' are presented. It is also an objective to reconstruct an Atlas of the imaginary of the modern technical object, in order to better understand the causes, reasons and purposes that led modern architects to pursue architecture as a technical object. This Atlas allows to panoptically relate the various technical objects, revealing the true importance and significance of those and the architecture with whom they interact. Architectures are again at the largest and most complex industrial context and the history of technology, which always belonged. Thus, they are able to reveal all the knowledge-in the shape of information-carried in their own 'genetic' code, displaying full chapters of technological culture as old as mankind and constantly growing and evolving. Thesis: Proving the Hypothesis Simondon ontologically defined the technical object as ‘that of which genesis exists’ and that develops ‘a tendency towards solidarity and unity’. For an architecture to be recognized as a technical object, a number of conditions should be given, in the successive phases involved in their mode of existence: Imagination. These architectures refer to an imaginary featuring images-object other technical objects (technical sets, technical individuals and technical elements). These images are the means to an eidetic transfer of the technical objects which they symbolize. Invention. These architectures are the result of tectonic transfers, which occur during the architectural design process, by assembling materials, components or procedures used in industry for the production of other technical objects. Individuation. These architectures evolve and are individualized by ‘concretization’, a process leading to the full integration of its parts and aiming the full convergence of its functions into a single structure. This integration tends towards the naturalization of the technical object, by means of a symbiotic incorporation of their associated milieus. After checking if there is a genesis of them, which evolves through the phases of imagination and invention and concretization, their imaginary, materiality, structure and organization are analyzed in order to detect patterns and common organizational principles to other technical objects counterparts. Structure The main text of the thesis consists of three parts. Before there is an Introduction to the main concepts that are exploited in the thesis on ontology Simondonian technical object, and technology transfer applied to Architecture. Then a first part covers the Imaginary of the modern technical object, a second part is dedicated to the Invention and a third part to the individuation process The thesis ends with a section for the Discussion and the Conclusions. The Introduction to the technical object, this is ontologically defined and its different categories are distinguished. The process of genesis of the technical object and the phases of imagination, invention and indivuation are explained. Concepts as Transduction, Technicality and Technical system are presented for being fundamental to understand the concept of Technology Transfer that will take place later. The concretization is explained as the particular mode of individuation and evolution of technical objects, a process by which the different parts of a technical object, are integrated and begin a tendency towards a convergence in itself. The first part, dedicated to the Imagination of the architectural technical object presents a parcial "archaeological" reconstruction the imaginary of the modern technical object, intended to better understand its genesis and the relationship with other technical objects. The imaginary sources are searched in the premises of the Industry of the early twentieth century, and particularly in the factories of modern vehicles, in order to see, to what extent these technical objects were important to imagine modern architecture. The reconstruction is continued until the Second Machine Age, when a new, more inquisitive and precise gaze turns to other factories, other vehicles and other components and materials, inquiring now about their organizational qualities. The second part is devoted to the Invention of the architectural technical object. The effectiveness of the simondonian concept of Transduction is checked: a transmitted and transformed sign or information, which relates to Technology Transfer, a synergetic process by which an industrial sector benefits from the development of another sector, to which some architects and historians have explicitly referred to explain their works during Machine Age, and which is crucial for the development of the industry. Technology transfer would be the transmission of a set of information or knowledge about technique, including the factual sphere of technique, but also the sensitive sphere of experience. In their application to Architecture, these transfers have been classified according to three types: Eidetic, Tectonic and Organic. Eidetic Transfers operate from an intuitive knowledge and are useful for transmitting information about the essence of the technical object serving as a source. Abstract concepts are transmitted through the object-images to produce an equivalent transformation in Architecture. A group of concepts that have been the subject of technology transfers of eidetic nature, and have been originated in the imaginary of the modern technical object, have been detected as a result of the research: FABRICATED, INHABITABLE, FUNCTIONAL, EFFICIENT, OBSOLESCENT, and BEAUTIFUL. The transfers can also be Tectonic when, that which is transferred is a constructive or structural technique, applied through artificial MATERIALS such as metals, composites as the ferrocement, or plywood, or alloys such as aluminum; or by means of the assembly of STRUCTURES or parts of other technical objects such as hulls, fuselages, car bodies or rigs, resulting in the invention of a new architectural technical object. In the case of ORGANIC transfers, what is transferred is an organizational technique, applied by means of a set of PROCEDURES defining the activity of the architect as a technologist and inventor of technical objects. These procedures have a transformative effect on three traditional institutions for Architecture: the School, the Atelier and the Work, and the results are summarized in new models of organization of the Education of Architecture, with the onset of the Architectural Design Studios or workshops; new models of organization of the practice of architect: the technical office; and new models of space organization, based on the spatial organization of the industry, resulting in spatial patterns or spatial matrices; a new model of organization of the project, which uses graphical tools and industrail protocols as the assembly as a methodology; a new model of architectural production based on the industrialization. After explaining the concepts and the genesis of assembly and montage, Design by assembly is presented as a method that promotes architectural invention, and is shown using some case studies analyzed in the thesis, in which there has been made some conceptual, constructive or organizational transfer. After analyzing the architectures studied in the thesis, genetic method proposed by Simondon was used to understand every particular evolution, reconstructing their genealogical lines up to their ancestors, identifying a series of genetic lineages, which correspond to the technical sets studied in the thesis : the shipyard, the car factory, and aircraft factory. The real ancestors of Modernity. The spatial organization systems of these technical sets are directly related to the technical object that is fabricated within them. From that point, a number of operational matrices are defined (MILL, SHOP, SHED) and used to make a taxonomy of the architectural technical object. This is exemplified by some projects by architects as Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Nicholas Grimshaw, Jean and Richard Horden Kaplicky. Interest of the thesis Since the beginning of the new century, several authors have shown a renewed interest in defining what a project is, how it is constituted and what it is for. The approaches to the subject are brought from analytic philosophy (Galle, 2008) or from the philosophy of technology (Verbeek, 2005; Vermaas, 2009) and they often speak about the relationship between design and material culture (Dorschel 2003, 2010 or Preston Boradkar 2012). It is also important to note the recent and growing interest in the work of French philosopher Gilbert Simondon [1924-1989], mainly known for its important contribution to the philosophy of technology and phenomenology of the technical object, and the influence on the thinking of contemporary philosophers as Paolo Virno, Bruno Latour or Gilles Deleuze, being the latter a author present in many doctoral theses and theoretical research conducted at major architecture schools around the world since the 90s to the present. The republication and translation of the work of Simondon (eng. 1980, spn. 2008) has received the attention from current philosophers such as Bernard Stiegler who continues to use its study and analysis to advance his thinking, thus being present in the contemporary debate about the technique. After its recent translation into Spanish, the thought of Simondon has aroused great interest in Latin America, as evidenced by the organization of various conferences and symposia, as well as the proliferation of publications about his work and thought8. Future translations of the rest of his major works, will ensure increased introduction in the academic community. Efforts have been made to present an alternative view of the History of Modern Architecture, using a reporter as Reyner P.Banham as a guide. The Machine Age intersects Simondon’s mechanology and his "technical vitalism", resulting in a fresh, renewed and optimistic interpretation of some of the most important works of Architecture of the twentieth century, which will surely contribute to the development of this century’s Architecture, already immersed in the paradigm shift towards sustainability and ecology.

A PUBLICIDADE RADIOFÔNICA EM BUSCA DE UMA NOVA CONFIGURAÇÃO

Ainda que um conjunto de atributos confira ao rádio um grande potencial para chamar a atenção do ouvinte e envolvê-lo em sua mensagem; ainda que o rádio seja uma das mídias com maior penetração nos domicílios e automóveis do Brasil; ainda que a adaptação do rádio às tecnologias digitais trace perspectivas otimistas para o meio; ainda que a sociedade moderna esteja criando indivíduos extremamente ocupados, que passam mais tempo no trabalho e nos automóveis do que em casa, abrindo espaço para o único meio que permite a execução de outras tarefas enquanto é consumido; comercialmente, o rádio enfrenta grandes dificuldades para atrair investimentos publicitários principal fonte de renda do meio. Nesse sentido, esta pesquisa exploratória pretende identificar e analisar os fatores que influenciam o baixo posicionamento do rádio no ranking dos investimentos publicitários. Para tanto, serão analisadas duas questões consideradas fundamentais: o emprego das possibilidades expressivas e persuasivas da publicidade radiofônica nos anúncios veiculados pelas emissoras e a percepção dos profissionais envolvidos na operacionalização da publicidade radiofônica sobre a atividade publicitária no rádio.

A PUBLICIDADE RADIOFÔNICA EM BUSCA DE UMA NOVA CONFIGURAÇÃO

Ainda que um conjunto de atributos confira ao rádio um grande potencial para chamar a atenção do ouvinte e envolvê-lo em sua mensagem; ainda que o rádio seja uma das mídias com maior penetração nos domicílios e automóveis do Brasil; ainda que a adaptação do rádio às tecnologias digitais trace perspectivas otimistas para o meio; ainda que a sociedade moderna esteja criando indivíduos extremamente ocupados, que passam mais tempo no trabalho e nos automóveis do que em casa, abrindo espaço para o único meio que permite a execução de outras tarefas enquanto é consumido; comercialmente, o rádio enfrenta grandes dificuldades para atrair investimentos publicitários principal fonte de renda do meio. Nesse sentido, esta pesquisa exploratória pretende identificar e analisar os fatores que influenciam o baixo posicionamento do rádio no ranking dos investimentos publicitários. Para tanto, serão analisadas duas questões consideradas fundamentais: o emprego das possibilidades expressivas e persuasivas da publicidade radiofônica nos anúncios veiculados pelas emissoras e a percepção dos profissionais envolvidos na operacionalização da publicidade radiofônica sobre a atividade publicitária no rádio.