Domestic violence and family law : criminological concerns

The battered women’s movement in the United States contributed to a sweeping change in the recognition of men’s violence against female intimate partners. Naming the problem and arguing in favor if its identification as a serious problem meriting a collective response were key aspects of this effort. Criminal and civil laws have been written and revised in an effort to answer calls to take such violence seriously. Scholars have devoted significant attention to the consequences of this reframing of violence, especially around the unintended outcomes of the incorporation of domestic violence into criminal justice regimes. Family law, however, has remained largely unexamined by criminologists. This paper calls for criminological attention to family law responses to domestic violence and provides directions for future research.

Finnish Homicides and Mental Disorders: An investigation of offense and offender characteristics

Although the majority of people with mental illness are not violent, scientific studies over the last decades show that certain psychiatric disorders increase the risk of violent behavior, including homicide. This thesis examined crime scene behaviors and offender background characteristics among mentally ill Finnish homicide offenders. Previously, homicide crime scene behaviors have been investigated in relation to offender demographic characteristics, whereas this study compares the behaviors of offenders with various mental illnesses. The study design was a retrospective chart review of the forensic psychiatric statements of Finnish homicide offenders. The work consists of four substudies. The aims of the study were as follows: To describe differences in the childhood and family backgrounds as well as in the adolescent and adult adjustment of Finnish homicide offenders belonging to different diagnostic categories (schizophrenia, personality disorder, alcoholism, drug addiction or no diagnosis). Further, the study examined associations between the crime scene behaviors and mental status of these offenders. Also, the distinguishing characteristics between two groups of offenders with schizophrenia were examined: early starters, who present antisocial behavior before the onset of schizophrenia, and late starters, who first offend after the onset of mental disorder. Finally, it was investigated how the use of excessive violence is associated with clinical and circumstantial variables as well as offender background characteristics among homicide offenders with schizophrenia. The main findings of the study can be summarized as follows. First, offenders with personality disorder or drug addiction had experienced multiple difficulties in their early environments: both family and individual problems were typical. Offenders with schizophrenia were relatively well-adjusted in childhood compared to the other groups. However, in adolescence and adulthood, social isolation, withdrawal and other difficulties attributable to these offenders illness became evident. In several aspects, offenders with alcohol dependency resembled offenders with no diagnosis in that these offenders had less problematic backgrounds compared to other groups. Second, the results showed that crime scene behaviors, victim gender and the victim-offender relationship differ between the groups. In particular, offenders with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or drug addiction have some unique features in their crime scene behaviors and choice of victims. Offenders with schizophrenia were more likely to kill a blood relative, to use a sharp weapon and to injure the victim s face. Drug addiction was associated with stealing from the victim and trying to cover up the body. Third, the results suggest that the offense characteristics of early- and late-start offenders with schizophrenia differ only modestly. However, several significant differences between the groups were found in characteristics of offenders: early starters had experienced a multitude of problems in their childhood surroundings and also later in life. Fourth, violent acts where the offender did not commit the offense alone or had previous homicidal history were predictive of excessive violence among offenders with schizophrenia. Positive psychotic symptoms did not predict the use of excessive violence. Nearly one third of the cases in the sample involved multiple and severe violence, including features such as sadism, mutilation, sexual components or extreme stabbing. In sum, mentally disordered homicide offenders are heterogeneous in their offense characteristics as well as their background characteristics. Empirically based information on how the offender s mental state is associated with specific crime scene behaviors can be utilized within the police force in developing methods of prioritizing suspects in unsolved homicide cases. Also, these results emphasise the importance of early interventions for problem families and children at risk of antisocial behavior. They may also contribute to the development of effective treatment for violent offenders.

News Media, Crime and Fear of Violence

Finland witnessed a surge in crime news reporting during the 1990s. At the same time, there was a significant rise in the levels of fear of crime reported by surveys. This research examines whether and how the two phenomena: news media and fear of violence were associated with each other. The dissertation consists of five sub-studies and a summary article. The first sub-study is a review of crime reporting trends in Finland, in which I have reviewed prior research and used existing Finnish datasets on media contents and crime news media exposure. The second study examines the association between crime media consumption and fear of crime when personal and vicarious victimization experiences have been held constant. Apart from analyzing the impact of crime news consumption on fear, media effects on general social trust are analyzed in the third sub-study. In the fourth sub-study I have analyzed the contents of the Finnish Poliisi-TV programme and compared the consistency of the picture of violent crime between official data sources and the programme. In the fifth and final sub-study, the victim narratives of Poliisi-TV s violence news contents have been analyzed. The research provides a series of results which are unprecedented in Finland. First, it observes that as in many other countries, the quantity of crime news supply has increased quite markedly in Finland. Second, it verifies that exposure to crime news is related to being worried about violent victimization and avoidance behaviour. Third, it documents that exposure to TV crime reality-programming is associated with reduced social trust among Finnish adolescents. Fourth, the analysis of Poliisi-TV shows that it transmits a distorted view of crime when contrasted with primary data sources on crime, but that this distortion is not as big as could be expected from international research findings and epochal theories of sociology. Fifth, the portrayals of violence victims in Poliisi-TV do not fit the traditional ideal types of victims that are usually seen to dominate crime media. The fact that the victims of violence in Poliisi-TV are ordinary people represents a wider development of the changing significance of the crime victim in Finland. The research concludes that although the media most likely did have an effect on the rising public fears in the 1990s, the mechanism was not as straight forward as has often been claimed. It is likely that there are other factors in the fear-media equation that are affecting both fear levels and crime reporting and that these factors are interactive in nature. Finally, the research calls for a re-orientation of media criminology and suggests more emphasis on the positive implications of crime in the media. Keywords: crime, media, fear of crime, violence, victimization, news

Working with a child Exposed to Community and Domestic violence in Northern Ireland: An Illustrated Case Example.

The focus of this paper is on the author’s multi-modal therapeutic practice with a 7-year-old boy referred to the Family Trauma Centre, following paramilitary assaults on his father. The work also addresses the boy’s experience of domestic violence. The work is contextualised in terms of the ‘Peace Process’ in Northern Ireland, including the establishment of the Family Trauma Centre as a response to the needs of victims of the Troubles. A rationale for working with children using a multi-modal approach is presented.

Resilience and Vulnerability in the Midst of Socio-Political Violence in Northern Ireland: One Family’s Experience of a Paramilitary Style Assault.

This article focuses on the experience of one particular family living amidst the socio-political violence in Northern Ireland to illustrate the impact of a particular traumatic event – a paramilitary assault due to mistaken identity. These attacks are often colloquially referred to as a ‘punishment shootings’ or ‘beatings’. The therapeutic process is described in narrative terms, providing a framework for; understanding the systemic effect on family relationships of the initial problematic ‘storying’ of the event, and the process of ‘re-storying’ a new more coherent narrative that integrates the trauma experience. Thus, temporary family vulnerability becomes transformed into increased family resilience. This process has general applicability in work with traumatized families.

Trajectories of Adolescent Aggression and Family Cohesion: The Potential to Perpetuate or Ameliorate Political Conflict

Correlations between intergroup violence and youth aggression are often reported. Yet longitudinal research is needed to understand the developmental factors underlying this relation, including between-person differences in within-person change in aggression through the adolescent years. Multilevel modeling was used to explore developmental and contextual influences related to risk for youth aggression using 4 waves of a prospective, longitudinal study of adolescent/mother dyad reports (N = 820; 51% female; 10–20 years old) in Belfast, Northern Ireland, a setting of protracted political conflict. Experience with sectarian (i.e., intergroup) antisocial behavior predicted greater youth aggression; however, that effect declined with age, and youth were buffered by a cohesive family environment. The trajectory of aggression (i.e., intercepts and linear slopes) related to more youth engagement in sectarian antisocial behavior; however, being female and having a more cohesive family were associated with lower levels of youth participation in sectarian acts. The findings are discussed in terms of protective and risk factors for adolescent aggression, and more specifically, participation in sectarian antisocial behavior. The article concludes with clinical and intervention implications, which may decrease youth aggression and the perpetuation of intergroup violence in contexts of ongoing conflict.

Santé reproductive et santé mentale des femmes qui ont subi la violence sexuelle en temps de conflit armé : cas de la République Démocratique du Congo

Problématique : Depuis bientôt deux décennies, la République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) est le territoire d’un conflit armé qui, selon l’International Rescue Commite, aurait occasionné plus de 3 millions de décès et autant de déplacés internes. Plusieurs rapports font également cas des nombreux actes de violence sexuelle (les viols, les mutilations, l’esclavage, l’exploitation sexuelle, etc.) commis envers les filles, les femmes et dans une moindre ampleur les hommes. S’il existe un consensus sur le côté barbare des actes de violence sexuelle liés aux conflits armés, rares sont les études qui ont évalué leurs conséquences sur la santé reproductive des survivantes surtout en termes d’issues telles que les fistules, les douleurs pelviennes chroniques (DPC), le désir de rapports sexuels, le désir d’enfant et le désir d’interruption de la grossesse issue de tels actes. Par ailleurs, même si la santé mentale des populations en zones de conflit représente un sujet d’intérêt, l’impact spécifique de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sur la santé mentale des survivantes a été peu étudié. De plus, ces travaux s’intéressent aux effets de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sur la santé mentale et sur la santé reproductive séparément et ce, sans évaluer les relations qui peuvent exister entre ces deux dimensions qui, pourtant, s’influencent mutuellement. Aussi, l’impact social de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit, ainsi que la contribution des normes socioculturelles aux difficultés que rencontrent les survivantes, a été peu étudié. Pourtant, l’impact social de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit peut permettre de mieux comprendre comment l’expérience d’un tel acte peut affecter la santé mentale. Enfin, aucune étude n’a évalué les effets de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit en la comparant à la violence sexuelle non liée au conflit (VSNLC). Pourtant, il est reconnu qu’à de nombreux égards, la violence sexuelle liée au conflit est bien différente de la VSNLC puisqu’elle est perpétrée avec l’intention de créer le maximum d’effets adverses pour la victime et sa communauté. Objectifs : Les objectifs poursuivis dans cette thèse visent à : 1) évaluer les effets de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sur la santé reproductive; 2) évaluer les effets de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sur la santé mentale en termes de sévérité des symptômes de stress posttraumatique (PTSD), de sévérité des symptômes de détresse psychologique et de probabilité de souffrir de troubles mentaux communs (TMC); 3) évaluer la contribution des troubles physiques de santé reproductive, en particulier les fistules et les douleurs pelviennes chroniques (DPC), aux effets de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sur la santé mentale; 4) évaluer la contribution de l’état de santé mentale aux effets de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sur le désir de rapports sexuels et le désir d’enfant; et 5) étudier l’impact de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sur le plan social ainsi que la contribution des normes socioculturelles à ses effets adverses et la façon dont ces effets pourraient à leur tour influencer la santé des femmes et leur relation avec l’enfant issu de l’acte de violence sexuelle subi. Méthodologie : Un devis mixte de nature convergente a permis de collecter des données quantitatives auprès de l’ensemble des participantes (étude transversale) et des données qualitatives sur un nombre plus restreint de femmes (étude phénoménologique). Une étude transversale populationnelle a été conduite entre juillet et août 2012 auprès de 320 femmes âgées de 15 à 45 ans habitant quatre (4) quartiers de la ville de Goma située dans la province du Nord-Kivu en RDC. Les femmes ont été recrutées à travers des annonces faites par les responsables des programmes d’alphabétisation et de résolution de conflits implantés dans les différents quartiers par le Collectif Alpha Ujuvi, une ONG locale. Les issues de santé reproductive évaluées sont : les fistules, les DPC, le désir de rapports sexuels, le désir d’enfant et le désir d’interruption de la grossesse issue d’un acte de violence sexuelle. Les variables de santé mentale d’intérêt sont : la sévérité des symptômes de détresse psychologique, la sévérité des symptômes de PTSD et la probabilité de souffrir de TMC. Pour les analyses, l’exposition a été définie en trois (3) catégories selon l’expérience passée de violence sexuelle : les femmes qui ont vécu des actes de violence sexuelle liée au conflit, celles qui ont vécu des actes de VSNLC et celles qui ont déclaré n’avoir jamais subi d’acte de violence sexuelle au cours de leur vie. Les variables de confusion potentielles mesurées sont : l’âge, le statut matrimonial, le nombre d’enfants, le niveau d’éducation le plus élevé atteint et l’occupation professionnelle. Les mesures d’associations ont été évaluées à l’aide de modèles de régressions logistiques et linéaires simples et multiples. Des tests d’interaction multiplicative et des analyses stratifiées ont été également conduits pour évaluer l’effet potentiellement modificateur de quelques variables (âge, statut matrimonial, nombre d’enfants) sur la relation entre la violence sexuelle et les variables de santé reproductive ou de santé mentale. Ces tests ont également été utilisés pour évaluer la contribution d’une variable de santé reproductive ou de santé mentale aux effets de la violence sexuelle sur l’autre dimension de la santé d’intérêt dans cette étude. Une étude phénoménologique a été conduite dans le même intervalle de temps auprès de 12 femmes ayant participé à la partie quantitative de l’étude qui ont vécu la violence sexuelle liée au conflit et ont eu un enfant issu d’une agression sexuelle. Les sujets explorés incluent : la perception de l’acte de violence sexuelle liée au conflit vécu et de la vie quotidienne par les victimes; la perception de l’acte de violence sexuelle liée au conflit par la famille et l’entourage et leurs réactions après l’agression; la perception de la grossesse issue de l’acte de violence sexuelle par la victime; la perception de l’enfant issu de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit par la victime ainsi que son entourage; les conséquences sociales de l’expérience de violence sexuelle liée au conflit et les besoins des victimes pour leur réhabilitation. Une analyse thématique avec un codage ouvert a permis de ressortir les thèmes clés des récits des participantes. Par la suite, l’approche de théorisation ancrée a été utilisée pour induire un cadre décrivant l’impact social de l’expérience de la violence sexuelle liée au conflit et les facteurs y contribuant. Résultats : Le premier article de cette thèse montre que, comparées aux femmes qui n’ont jamais vécu un acte de violence sexuelle, celles qui ont vécu la violence sexuelle liée au conflit ont une probabilité plus élevée d’avoir une fistule (OR=11.1, IC 95% [3.1-39.3]), des DPC (OR=5.1, IC 95% [2.4-10.9]), de rapporter une absence de désir de rapports sexuels (OR=3.5, IC 95% [1.7-6.9]) et une absence de désir d’enfant (OR=3.5, IC 95% [1.6-7.8]). Comparées aux mêmes femmes, celles qui ont vécu la VSNLC ont plus de probabilité de souffrir de DPC (OR=2.3, IC 95% [0.95-5.8]) et de rapporter une absence de désir d’enfant (OR=2.7, IC 95% [1.1-6.5]). Comparées aux femmes qui ont vécu la VSNLC, celles qui ont vécu la violence sexuelle liée au conflit ont également une probabilité plus élevée d’avoir une fistule (OR=9.5, IC 95% [1.6-56.4]), des DPC (OR=2.2, IC 95% [0.8-5.7]) et de rapporter une absence de désir de rapports sexuels (OR=2.5, IC 95% [1.1-6.1]). En ce qui concerne les grossesses issues des viols, comparées aux femmes qui ont vécu la VSNLC, celles qui ont vécu la violence sexuelle liée au conflit sont plus nombreuses à souhaiter avorter (55% vs 25% pour celles qui ont vécu la VSNLC). Elles sont également plus nombreuses à déclarer qu’elles auraient avorté si les soins appropriés étaient accessibles (39% vs 21% pour celles qui ont vécu la VSNLC). Le second article montre qu’en comparaison aux femmes qui n’ont jamais subi de violence sexuelle, celles qui ont vécu la violence sexuelle liée au conflit présentent des symptômes de détresse psychologique (moyennes de score respectives 8.6 et 12.6, p<0.0001) et des symptômes de PTSD (moyennes de score respectives 2.2 et 2.6, p<0.0001) plus sévères et ont plus de probabilité d’être dépistées comme un cas de TMC (30% vs 76%, p<0.0001). De plus, comparées aux femmes qui ont vécu la VSNLC, celles qui ont vécu la violence sexuelle liée au conflit présentent des symptômes de détresse psychologique (moyennes de score respectives 10.1 et 12.6, p<0.0001) et des symptômes de PTSD (moyennes de score respectives 2.2 et 2.6, p<0.0001) plus sévères et ont plus de probabilité d’être dépistées comme un cas de TMC (48% vs 76%, p<0.001). Les valeurs minimales et maximales de score de sévérité de symptômes de détresse psychologique sont de 0/12 pour les femmes qui n’ont jamais vécu de violence sexuelle, 4/19 pour celles qui ont vécu la VSNLC et de 5/18 pour celles qui ont vécu la violence sexuelle liée au confit. En ce qui concerne la sévérité des symptômes de PTSD, les scores minimal et maximal sont respectivement de 0.36/3.22, 0.41/3.41 et 0.95/3.45. Le fait d’avoir développé une fistule ou de souffrir de DPC après l’agression sexuelle augmente la force des associations entre la violence sexuelle et la santé mentale. Les femmes qui ont subi la violence sexuelle liée au conflit et qui ont souffert de fistules présentent des symptômes de détresse psychologique et de PTSD plus sévères comparées aux femmes qui ont subi la violence sexuelle liée au conflit mais n’ont pas de fistules. Les résultats sont similaires pour les femmes qui ont subi la violence sexuelle liée au conflit et qui souffrent de DPC. Des résultats complémentaires suggèrent que le statut matrimonial modifie l’effet de la violence sexuelle sur la sévérité des symptômes de détresse psychologique, les femmes divorcées/séparées et les veuves étant celles qui ont les moyennes de score les plus élevées (respectivement 11.3 et 12.1 vs 9.26 et 9.49 pour les célibataires et les mariées). Par ailleurs, la sévérité des symptômes de détresse psychologique modifie l’association entre la violence sexuelle liée au conflit et le désir d’enfant. Le troisième article montre que, sur le plan social, l’expérience de violence sexuelle liée au conflit entraine également de lourdes conséquences. Toutes celles qui ont vécu ce type d’acte décrivent leur vie de survivante et de mère d’un enfant issu d’une agression sexuelle comme difficile, oppressive, faite de peines et de soucis et sans valeur. Plusieurs facteurs influencent la description que les victimes de violence sexuelle liée au conflit font de leur vie quotidienne, et ils sont tous reliés aux normes socioculturelles qui font de la femme une citoyenne de seconde zone, ne font aucune différence entre un viol et un adultère, condamnent les victimes de violence sexuelle plutôt que leurs agresseurs, rejettent et stigmatisent les victimes de tels actes ainsi que l’enfant qui en est issu. En réponse au rejet et au manque de considération, les femmes victimes de violence sexuelle liée au conflit ont tendance à s’isoler pour éviter les insultes et à garder le silence sur leur agression. En plus, les réactions de leur entourage/communauté ont tendance à leur faire revivre l’agression sexuelle subie, autant d’éléments qui nuisent davantage à leur réhabilitation. D’autres résultats démontrent que les enfants issus d’actes de violence sexuelle liée au conflit sont également rejetés par leur communauté, leur famille adoptive ainsi que le conjoint de leur mère, ce qui affecte davantage les survivantes. Avec leurs mères, les relations développées varient entre le rejet, la résignation et l’affection. Néanmoins, ces relations sont plus souvent tendues probablement à cause de la stigmatisation de la communauté. Conclusion: La violence sexuelle liée au conflit a des effets adverses sur la santé reproductive, la santé mentale mais également sur le plan social. Ces trois dimensions sont loin d’être isolées puisque cette étude a permis de démontrer qu’elles s’influencent mutuellement. Ceci suggère que la prise en charge des victimes de violence sexuelle liée au conflit ne doit pas se concentrer sur un aspect ou un autre de la santé mais prendre en compte l’ensemble des dimensions de la femme pour offrir une aide holistique, plus adaptée et qui sera plus efficace à long terme.

Mental health of internally displaced preschool children: a cross-sectional study conducted in Bogotá, Colombia

A causa de los conflictos armados, como el de Colombia, se han desplazado por la fuerza a millones de personas, entre ellas una importante parte de la población infantil. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar la salud mental de los niños desplazados internos en edad preescolar en Bogotá Colombia, e identificar los determinantes de la salud mental en estos niños. Métodos: Estudio transversal realizado entre 279 niños que asisten a cuatro jardines infantiles en un barrio marginal de Bogotá. La salud mental infantil se evaluó con el instrumento validado de Comportamiento Infantil (CBCL) 1,5-5 años, aplicados a padres y cuidadores. Se realizo un análisis univariado y multivariado de regresión logística para evaluar la asociación entre el desplazamiento y la salud mental de los niños y para identificar las relaciones con la salud mental en los niños desplazados. Resultados: los Niños desplazados (n = 90) se identificaron con más frecuencia sobre los puntos de corte límite para las escalas CBCL que los no desplazados (n = 189) (por ejemplo, problemas totales 46,7 vs 22,8%;p \ 0,001). La asociación entre el desplazamiento y la presencia de problemas CBCL totales se mantuvo después del ajuste por factores socio-demográficos (OR Ajustado 3.3 del 95%: 1,5; 6,9). Donde la salud mental del cuidador explica en parte la asociación. En los niños desplazados, la salud mental del cuidador (p \ 0,01) y el funcionamiento familiar (p \ 0,01) se asociaron independientemente con la salud mental de los niños. La exposición a eventos traumáticos y el apoyo social también se asociaron con la salud mental del niño, sin embargo, las asociaciones no fueron independientes. Conclusión: En este barrio marginal de Bogotá, los niños en edad preescolar registrados como desplazados internos presentan peor salud mental que los no desplazados. El funcionamiento familiar y la salud mental del cuidador fueron fuerte e independientemente asociados con la salud mental de los niños y niñas desplazados.

How domestic violence came to be viewed as a public issue and policy object

Includes bibliography

Violence against children and adolescents: awareness and attitudes of Brazilian dentists

Violence against children and adolescents, ranging from negligence to sexual abuse, is an imperative public health problem. The ill treatments are considered as nonaccidental traumas, actions or omissions against children, who suffer physical or emotional violence. The main perpetrators are fathers, mothers, guardians, family, friends or the children‘s primary caretaker. It is very important to identify abuse cases, because this allows proper medical and legal intervention. In Brazil, the law n. 8.069, of July 13, 1990, known as the ECA -Statute for Children and Adolescents (SCA), stipulates the obligation to report suspected or confirmed cases of ill treatment against a child or adolescent to the Guardianship Council of the respective locality. The health professionals play a crucial role with regard to identifying cases of violence, collecting information, making early diagnosis of suspect cases and reporting such cases to the authorities. The dentists can contribute significantly, as most injuries occur in the orofacial region. Bite marks, burns, bruising, among others, are easily identified during a dental consultation. The aim of this work was to verify the awareness and attitudes of Brazilian dentists concerning violence against children and adolescents. This research was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Dentistry of Araraquara – São Paulo State University (FOAr – UNESP). Sixty-three dentists answered an open and closed questionnaire concerning their formation, knowledge, experience and attitudes towards ill-treated children and adolescents. Among other results, thirty-nine dentists (61.9%) affirmed to have the means to identify illtreatment cases, 13 (20.6%) reported having some experience on this matter, but only 8 reported the cases to the Council of Guardianship, as determined by Brazilian law. Twenty percent of the reasons presented for not notifying the Council were fear of reprisal, and 60.0% were uncertain concerning the ethical and legal implications. Physical violence was the most reported form of identified violence (76.9%), followed by negligence (38.5%). Among the 13 professionals that had experience with violence cases, in 10 cases the perpetrators were identified – in 70.0% of the cases, the parents were the originators of such violence. It was concluded that further formation and orientation are necessary, in order to prepare dentists to act correctly when, during their professional activities, they encounter cases of violence against children and adolescents.

Construction and validation of an instrument that breaks the silence: the impact of domestic and/or sexual violence on women's health, as shown during climacterium

Objective: The aim of this study was to construct and to validate a measure of the consequences of domestic violence on women's health during climacterium. Methods: A questionnaire was administered at the Outpatient Climacterium Clinic to 124 women aged 40 to 65 years who were the victims of domestic and/or sexual violence (experimental group). They were divided into three groups: (1) those who were victims of violence exclusively during childhood/adolescence, (2) those who were victims of violence exclusively during adulthood, and (3) those who were victims of violence throughout their lives. The instrument included 34 items evaluating the beginning, frequency, and type of violence; the search for health assistance and reporting of the violence; the violence and the number of comorbidities; and violence and the Kupperman Menopausal Index. We also included a control group composed of perimenopausal and postmenopausal women who did not experience any violence (n = 120). Results: The instrument presented a Cronbach alpha = 0.82, good reliability among the examiners (+0.80), and a good possibility of reproducibility. The mean age of menopause was 45.4 years, and the mean age in the control group was 48.1 years. Group 1 showed a mean of 5.1 comorbidities, Group 2 had 4.6, and Group 3 had 4.4. Sexual violence (43.5%) and other types of violence both presented average comorbidities (4.60) but represented a significant impairment in the victim's sexual life. There were significant associations in group 3 and a high Kupperman Menopausal Index score. In the experimental group, 80.6% did not seek health services for the violence they experienced. Conclusions: The questionnaire presented good internal consistency and a validated construction. It can be easily reproduced and is indicated to evaluate the consequences of domestic and/or sexual violence on women's health during climacterium.

Police Interviews with Victims and Suspects of Violent and Sexual Crimes : Interviewee's experiences and interview outcomes

The police interview is one of the most important investigative tools that law enforcement has close at hand, and police interview methods have changed during the twentieth century. A good police interview is conducted in the frame of the law, is governed by the interview goal, and is influenced by facilitating factors that may affect the elicited report. The present doctoral dissertation focuses on police interviews in cases of very serious crimes of violence and sexual offences. Results reveal crime victims’ and perpetrators’ experiences of being interviewed and police officers’ attitudes towards conducting interviews related to traumatizing crimes. Study 1 revealed that when police officers interviewed murderers and sexual offenders, the interviewees perceived attitudes characterized by either dominance or humanity. Police interviews marked by dominance and suspects’ responses of anxiety were mainly associated with a higher proportion of denials, whereas an approach marked by humanity, and responses of being respected were significantly associated with admissions. In line with Study 1, the victims of rape and aggravated assault in Study 2 also revealed the experience of two police interview styles, where an interviewing style marked by dominance and responses of anxiety was significantly associated with crime victims’ omissions of information. Moreover, a humanitarian interviewing style, and crime victims’ feelings of being respected and co-operative, was significantly related to crime victims providing all information from painful events. Special squad police officers’ attitudes towards interviewing crime victims, in Study 3, also showed a humanitarian approach and two dominant approaches, one affective and the other refusing. The attitude towards interviewing suspects of crimes in focus revealed humanitarian and dominant interviewing attitudes, and an approach marked by kindness. The present thesis shows that, during their entire career, an overwhelming majority of the special squad police officers have experienced stressful events during patrol as well as investigative duty. Results show that symptoms from stressful event exposures and coping mechanisms are associated with negative attitudes towards interviewing suspects and supportive attitudes towards crime victim interviews. Thus, experiences from stressful exposures may automatically activate ego-defensive functions that automatically generate dominant attitudes. Moreover, it is important to offer police officers who have been exposed to stressful events the opportunity to work through their experiences, for example, through debriefing procedures. After debriefings, police officers are better prepared to meet crime victims and suspects and, through conscious closed-loop processes, to conduct police interviews without awaking ego-defensive functions.

Feelings of revenge, retaliation motive, and posttraumatic stress reactions in crime victims

Individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are often said to experience strong feelings of revenge. However, there is a need for confirmatory empirical studies. Therefore, in a study of 174 victims of violent crimes, the relation between feelings of revenge and posttraumatic stress reactions was investigated. Feelings of revenge were correlated with intrusion and hyperarousal but not with avoidance. Feelings of revenge explained incremental variance of intrusion and hyperarousalwhen the variance explained by victimological variables was controlled. The retaliation motive implied in feelings of revenge did not account for the relation between feelings of revenge and posttraumatic stress reactions. However, the relation was moderated by the time since victimization. Therefore, feelings of revenge must presumably be regarded as a maladaptive coping reaction to experienced injustice, but not in the first period after victimization.

Safety of lntensive In-Home Family Workers

Violence against social workers and other helping professionals has increased. Within this context, intensive in-home family workers were asked about their safety in working with clients. If family workers stated that that they felt only somewhat safe or not safe at all, they were asked to explain where they are likely to feel unsafe. Findings include concerns about safety. The author suggests comprehensive educational curriculum be integrated in agency training for new hires and seasoned employees; also, training should be implemented to increase worker awareness of potentially violent situations and how to de-escalate and defuse potentially violent clients.

Do trials of perpetrators retraumatize crime victims?

Attendance at trials of perpetrators could be retraumatizing for crime victims suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder. To investigate this hypothesis, two studies were conducted in which retraumatization was defined as a significant increase in posttraumatic stress reactions. A cross-sectional study of 137 victims of rape and nonsexual assault revealed that trial variables do virtually not predict posttraumatic stress reactions at a time several years after trial.Alongitudinal study of 31 victims of rape and nonsexual assault revealed intraindividual stability of posttraumatic stress reactions for the time interval from a few weeks before the trial to a few weeks after the trial; in addition, interindividual stability was high. The results of both studies do not support the retraumatization hypothesis, which should therefore be used with caution.