Custo efetividade do uso do Peguinterferon alfa 2a combinado com Ribavirina no tratamento de respondedores virológicos lentos coinfectados com VHC/HIV

No mundo, as hepatites decorrentes de infecções virais têm sido uma das grandes preocupações em saúde pública devido a seu caráter crônico, curso assintomático e pela sua capacidade de determinar a perda da função hepática. Com o uso em larga escala de medicamentos antirretrovirais, a doença hepática relacionada à infecção pelo vírus da hepatite C (VHC) contribuiu para uma mudança radical na história natural da infecção pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV). Não se sabe ao certo o peso da coinfecção VHC/HIV no Brasil, mas evidências apontam que independentemente da região geográfica, esses indivíduos apresentam maiores dificuldades em eliminar o VHC após o tratamento farmacológico, quando comparados a monoinfectados. No âmbito do SUS, o tratamento antiviral padrão para portadores do genótipo 1 do VHC e do HIV é a administração de peguinterferon associado à Ribavirina. Quanto ao período de tratamento e aos indivíduos que devem ser incluídos, os dois protocolos terapêuticos mais recentes possuem divergências. A diretriz mais atual preconiza o tratamento de indivíduos respondedores precoces somados a respondedores virológicos lentos, enquanto a diretriz imediatamente anterior exclui na 12 semana indivíduos que não respondem completamente. Com base nessa divergência, esse estudo objetivou avaliar o custo-efetividade do tratamento contra o VHC em indivíduos portadores do genótipo 1, coinfectados com o HIV, virgens de tratamento antiviral, não cirróticos e imunologicamente estabilizados, submetidos às regras de tratamento antiviral estabelecidos pelas duas mais recentes diretrizes terapêuticas direcionadas ao atendimento pelo SUS. Para tal, foi elaborado um modelo matemático de decisão, baseado em cadeias de Markov, que simulou a progressão da doença hepática mediante o tratamento e não tratamento. Foi acompanhada uma coorte hipotética de mil indivíduos homens, maiores de 40 anos. Adotou-se a perspectiva do Sistema Único de Saúde, horizonte temporal de 30 anos e taxa de desconto de 5% para os custos e consequências clínicas. A extensão do tratamento para respondedores lentos proporcionou incremento de 0,28 anos de vida ajustados por qualidade (QALY), de 7% de sobrevida e aumento de 60% no número de indivíduos que eliminaram o VHC. Além dos esperados benefícios em eficácia, a inclusão de respondedores virológicos lentos mostrou-se uma estratégia custo-efetiva ao alcançar um incremental de custo efetividade de R$ 44.171/QALY, valor abaixo do limiar de aceitabilidade proposto pela Organização Mundial da Saúde OMS - (R$ 63.756,00/QALY). A análise de sensibilidade demonstrou que as possíveis incertezas contidas no modelo são incapazes de alterar o resultado final, evidenciando, assim, a robustez da análise. A inclusão de indivíduos coinfectados VHC/HIV respondedores virológicos lentos no protocolo de tratamento apresenta-se, do ponto de vista fármaco-econômico, como uma estratégia com relação de custoefetividade favorável para o Sistema Único de Saúde. Sua adoção é perfeitamente compatível com a perspectiva do sistema, ao retornar melhores resultados em saúdeassociados a custos abaixo de um teto orçamentário aceitável, e com o da sociedade, ao evitar em maior grau, complicações e internações quando comparado à não inclusão.

Apoio social e índice de massa corporal: um estudo de base populacional

A obesidade é uma condição de saúde que representa risco para uma série de mudanças fisiológicas e sociais ao indivíduo. O aumento de sua prevalência tanto no mundo quanto na população brasileira é considerado como um dos maiores problemas de saúde pública. A obesidade é associada com múltiplos fatores, como biológicos, individuais, ambientais e sociais, e a importância dos fatores sociais vêm sendo largamente discutida. O apoio social, que possui como uma de suas definições, a percepção de recursos disponibilizados por outros indivíduos no auxílio ao enfrentamento de situações adversas é um dos fatores sociais associados com obesidade e outros desfechos de saúde. Este constructo é um fator amplamente documentado que vem se mostrando ligado a vários desfechos de saúde nos últimos trinta anos, no entanto, existe uma lacuna sobre sua relação com o índice de massa corporal. Dessa forma, o presente estudo tem como objetivo estudar avaliar a associação entre as dimensões de apoio social e o IMC em indivíduos residentes no município de Duque de Caxias. A variável desfecho foi o IMC e as variáveis independentes, as quatro dimensões do apoio social (afetiva, material, emocional/informação e de interação social positiva). O estudo foi composto por uma amostra de 1465 indivíduos, entre 20 e 59 anos de idade, oriundos de uma pesquisa transversal de base populacional, chamada Grupo de Pesquisas sobre Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional em Duque de Caxias SANDUC. O IMC foi calculado a partir das aferições de peso e altura realizadas por entrevistadores treinados. O instrumento utilizado para avaliar o apoio social foi elaborado para o Medical Outcomes Study (MOS), tendo sido previamente adaptado para o português e validado para a população brasileira. O modelo estatístico utilizado foi a regressão linear múltipla e as análises foram realizadas através do programa SAS versão 9.3, levando em conta o fator de ponderação e o desenho de amostra complexa. Pouco mais da metade dos indivíduos eram do sexo feminino (54,94%) e a prevalência de obesidade em torno de 27,1% entre as mulheres (IC 95%: 22.4 31.8) e 16,0% (IC 95%: 12.4 19.7) entre os homens. Com relação ao apoio social, a média dos escores das dimensões situou-se entre 84 e 90 pontos, para as mulheres e para os homens, respectivamente. Entre os homens não houve associação estatisticamente significativa entre as dimensões do apoio social e o IMC (apoio afetivo: β= -0.81 e p=0.16; apoio material: β= 0.20 e p=0.72; apoio emocional/informação: β= -0.29 e p=0.61; apoio de interação social positiva: β= -0.23 e p=0.72). Porém, entre as mulheres, tanto o apoio afetivo quanto o apoio de interação social positiva mostraram associação negativa com o IMC (apoio afetivo: β= -1.02 e p=0.04; apoio de interação social positiva: β= -1.18 e p=0.01). O presente estudo sugere que, entre as mulheres, ocorre associação inversa entre o apoio social, especificamente o apoio afetivo e o de interação social positiva, e o índice de massa corporal.

Prevalência do medo de quedas em idosos e sua associação com fatores clínicos,funcionais e psicossociais: Estudo FIBRA-RJ

Introdução: Com o expressivo aumento da população idosa, as quedas são eventos comuns e levam a desfechos adversos à saúde. As consequências do medo de quedas podem ser tão incapacitantes como as quedas. Objetivo: O presente estudo teve como objetivo estimar a prevalência do medo de quedas em idosos e sua associação com fatores clínicos, funcionais e psicossociais. Métodos: Utilizaram-se os dados do Estudo FIBRA-RJ, que avaliou clientes de uma operadora de saúde, residentes na Zona Norte do município do Rio de Janeiro. A seleção desta amostra foi realizada através de amostragem aleatória inversa, de acordo com estratos de faixa etária e sexo do cadastro oferecido pela operadora. As entrevistas foram realizadas face a face no domicilio. O medo de quedas, variável dependente, foi avaliado através da FES-I-BR. As seguintes variáveis clínicas, funcionais e psicossociais foram avaliadas como variáveis independentes: histórico de quedas, fratura pós-queda, número de comorbidades, número de medicamentos, internação no último ano, uso de dispositivo de auxílio à marcha, dependência funcional nas atividades básicas e instrumentais de vida diária, dificuldade visual e auditiva, força de preensão palmar, velocidade de marcha, autopercepção de saúde, sintomas depressivos, alteração cognitiva, morar só, apoio social instrumental e nível de atividade. As associações foram avaliadas através de regressão logística. Resultados: Dentre os 742 idosos avaliados, 51,9% apresentaram medo de quedas, sendo esta prevalência maior no sexo feminino e nos mais idosos. Na análise logística multivariada, houve associação com histórico de 1 ou 2 quedas (OR=2,18; IC95%1,42-3,36), 3 ou mais quedas (OR=2,72; IC95% 1,10-6,70), usar 7 ou mais medicamentos (OR=1,70; IC95%1,04-2,80), dificuldade auditiva (OR=1,66; IC95% 1,10-2,49), ter dependência funcional nas atividades de vida diária (AVDs) (OR=1,73; IC95%1,07-2,79), velocidade de marcha diminuída (OR=1,64; IC95%1,04-2,58), autopercepção de saúde regular (OR=1,89; IC95%1,30-2,74) e ruim/muito ruim (OR=4,92; IC95%1,49-16,27) e sintomas depressivos (OR=1,68; IC95%1,07-2,63). Conclusão: Os resultados obtidos mostram a prevalência elevada de medo de quedas. Destaca-se a necessidade de avaliação desta condição nos idosos. Identificar os fatores associados é útil para desenvolver estratégias efetivas de intervenção dos possíveis fatores modificáveis.

Emergency department crowding: prioritising quantified crowding measures using a Delphi study.

AimsEmergency department (ED) crowding has been associated with a number of negative health outcomes, including unnecessary deaths, increased waiting times and a decrease in care quality. Despite the seriousness of this issue, there is little agreement on appropriate crowding measures to assess crowding effects on ED operations. The objective of this study was to prioritise a list of quantified crowding measures that would assess the current state of a department.MethodsA three round Delphi study was conducted via email and an Internet based survey tool. The panel consisted of 40 professionals who had exposure to and expertise in crowding. Participants submitted quantified crowding measures which, through three rounds, were evaluated and ranked to assess participant agreement for inclusion.ResultsThe panel identified 27 measures of which eight (29.6%) reached consensus at the end of the study. These measures comprised: (1) ability of ambulances to offload; (2) patients who leave without being seen or treated; (3) time until triage; (4) ED occupancy rate; (5) patients' total length of stay in the ED; (6) time to see a physician; (7) ED boarding time; and (8) number of patients boarding in the ED.ConclusionsThis study resulted in the identification of eight quantified crowding measures, which present a comprehensive view of how crowding is affecting ED operations, and highlighted areas of concern. These quantified measures have the potential to make a considerable contribution to decision making by ED management and to provide a basis for learning across different departments.

Vitamin D status and requirements during pregnancy and lactation

Vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy, lactation, and early infancy has been widely reported. Current understanding of vitamin D metabolism during pregnancy and lactation is incomplete, and to date, experimental data to support vitamin D requirements for these life stages are scarce. There is a shortage of nationally representative data and appropriate reference ranges for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) during pregnancy, lactation and infancy, including in umbilical cord blood. This thesis described concentrations of total 25OHD and individual metabolites including 25OHD3, 25OHD2, and 3-epi-25OHD3 at 15 weeks’ gestation in a large seasonally balanced pregnancy cohort study (n 1768), carried out in Cork, Ireland (52oN). The prevalence of low 25OHD concentrations in pregnant women was higher than published reports in other Caucasian women, and was highest among non-users of vitamin D-containing supplements during winter. A longitudinal pregnancy study was included which suggested gestational stages had an impact on the total serum 25OHD concentration. This thesis incorporated a randomized controlled trial carried out among 100 women across 3 intervention groups using 20 μg/day of vitamin D3 with or without 500 mg calcium, or placebo, over 12-weeks of lactation to investigate the vitamin D requirement for lactating mothers and the vitamin D content of human milk. A daily intake of 25 μg/day was suggested to meet the requirement of lactating women to maintain a 25OHD levels above 50 nmol/L in 97.5% of the population at 52oN all year around. However, vitamin D content in human milk did not increase in response to supplementation. Serum 25OHD concentration has been used as a predictor of a number of health outcomes. This thesis reported large differences in serum 25OHD concentrations using different methods in 86 umbilical cord samples. The need for international standardization of serum 25OHD measurements was re-emphasized in this thesis.

At what price? A cost-effectiveness analysis comparing trial of labour after previous caesarean versus elective repeat caesarean delivery

Background: Elective repeat caesarean delivery (ERCD) rates have been increasing worldwide, thus prompting obstetric discourse on the risks and benefits for the mother and infant. Yet, these increasing rates also have major economic implications for the health care system. Given the dearth of information on the cost-effectiveness related to mode of delivery, the aim of this paper was to perform an economic evaluation on the costs and short-term maternal health consequences associated with a trial of labour after one previous caesarean delivery compared with ERCD for low risk women in Ireland.Methods: Using a decision analytic model, a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) was performed where the measure of health gain was quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) over a six-week time horizon. A review of international literature was conducted to derive representative estimates of adverse maternal health outcomes following a trial of labour after caesarean (TOLAC) and ERCD. Delivery/procedure costs derived from primary data collection and combined both "bottom-up" and "top-down" costing estimations.Results: Maternal morbidities emerged in twice as many cases in the TOLAC group than the ERCD group. However, a TOLAC was found to be the most-effective method of delivery because it was substantially less expensive than ERCD ((sic)1,835.06 versus (sic)4,039.87 per women, respectively), and QALYs were modestly higher (0.84 versus 0.70). Our findings were supported by probabilistic sensitivity analysis.Conclusions: Clinicians need to be well informed of the benefits and risks of TOLAC among low risk women. Ideally, clinician-patient discourse would address differences in length of hospital stay and postpartum recovery time. While it is premature advocate a policy of TOLAC across maternity units, the results of the study prompt further analysis and repeat iterations, encouraging future studies to synthesis previous research and new and relevant evidence under a single comprehensive decision model.

Self-management education for cystic fibrosis

Background: Self-management education may help patients with cystic fibrosis and their families to choose, monitor and adjust treatment requirements for their illness, and also to manage the effects of illness on their lives. Although self-management education interventions have been developed for cystic fibrosis, no previous systematic review of the evidence of effectiveness of these interventions has been conducted. Objectives: To assess the effects of self-management education interventions on improving health outcomes for patients with cystic fibrosis and their caregivers. Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group Trials Register (date of the last search: 22 August 2013). We also searched databases through EBSCO (CINAHL; Psychological and Behavioural Sciences Collection; PsychInfo; SocINDEX) and Elsevier (Embase) and handsearched relevant journals and conference proceedings (date of the last searches: 01 February 2014 ). Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials, quasi-randomised controlled trials or controlled clinical trials comparing different types of self-management education for cystic fibrosis or comparing self-management education with standard care or no intervention. Data collection and analysis: Two authors assessed trial eligibility and risk of bias. Three authors extracted data. Main results: Four trials (involving a total of 269 participants) were included. The participants were children with cystic fibrosis and their parents or caregivers in three trials and adults with cystic fibrosis in one trial. The trials compared four different self-management education interventions versus standard treatment: (1) a training programme for managing cystic fibrosis in general; (2) education specific to aerosol and airway clearance treatments; (3) disease-specific nutrition education; and (4) general and disease-specific nutrition education. Training children to manage cystic fibrosis in general had no statistically significant effects on weight after six to eight weeks, mean difference -7.74 lb (i.e. 3.51 kg) (95% confidence interval -35.18 to 19.70). General and disease-specific nutrition education for adults had no statistically significant effects on: pulmonary function (forced expiratory volume at one second), mean difference -5.00 % (95% confidence interval -18.10 to 8.10) at six months and mean difference -5.50 % (95% confidence interval -18.46 to 7.46) at 12 months; or weight, mean difference - 0.70 kg (95% confidence interval -6.58 to 5.18) at six months and mean difference -0.70 kg (95% confidence interval -6.62 to 5.22) at 12 months; or dietary fat intake scores, mean difference 1.60 (85% confidence interval -2.90 to 6.10) at six months and mean difference 0.20 (95% confidence interval -4.08 to 4.48) at 12 months. There is some limited evidence to suggest that self-management education may improve knowledge in patients with cystic fibrosis but not in parents or caregivers. There is also some limited evidence to suggest that self-management education may result in positively changing a small number of behaviours in both patients and caregivers. Authors' conclusions: The available evidence from this review is of insufficient quantity and quality to draw any firm conclusions about the effects of self-management education for cystic fibrosis. Further trials are needed to investigate the effects of self-management education on a range of clinical and behavioural outcomes in children, adolescents and adults with cystic fibrosis and their caregivers.

Aging African American Women and the Impact of Positive Psychological Factors on Quality of Life

Aging African-American women are disproportionately affected by negative health outcomes and mortality. Life stress has strong associations with these health outcomes. The purpose of this research was to understand how aging African American women manage stress. Specifically, the effects of coping, optimism, resilience, and religiousness as it relates to quality of life were examined. This cross-sectional exploratory study used a self-administered questionnaire and examined quality of life in 182 African-American women who were 65 years of age or older living in senior residential centers in Baltimore using convenience sampling. The age range for these women was 65 to 94 years with a mean of 71.8 years (SD = 5.6). The majority (53.1%) of participants completed high school, with 23 percent (N = 42) obtaining college degrees and 19 percent (N = 35) holding advanced degrees. Nearly 58 percent of participants were widowed and 81 percent were retired. In addition to demographics, the questionnaire included the following reliable and valid survey instruments: The Brief Cope Scale (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989), Optimism Questionnaire (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994), Resilience Survey (Wagnild & Young, 1987), Religiousness Assessment (Koenig, 1997), and Quality of Life Questionnaire (Cummins, 1996). Results revealed that the positive psychological factors examined were positively associated with and significant predictors of quality of life. The bivariate correlations indicated that of the six coping dimensions measured in this study, planning (r=.68) was the most positively associated with quality of life. Optimism (r=.33), resilience (=.48), and religiousness (r=.30) were also significantly correlated with quality of life. In the linear regression model, again the coping dimension of planning was the best predictor of quality of life (beta = .75, p <.001). Optimism (beta = .31, p <.001), resilience (beta = .34, p, .001) and religiousness (beta = .17, p <.01) were also significant predictors of quality of life. It appears as if positive psychology plays an important role in improving quality of life among aging African-American women.

Patient-provider communication, self-reported medication adherence, and race in a postmyocardial infarction population.

OBJECTIVES: Our objectives were to: 1) describe patient-reported communication with their provider and explore differences in perceptions of racially diverse adherent versus nonadherent patients; and 2) examine whether the association between unanswered questions and patient-reported medication nonadherence varied as a function of patients' race. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of baseline in-person survey data from a trial designed to improve postmyocardial infarction management of cardiovascular disease risk factors. RESULTS: Overall, 298 patients (74%) reported never leaving their doctor's office with unanswered questions. Among those who were adherent and nonadherent with their medications, 183 (79%) and 115 (67%) patients, respectively, never left their doctor's office with unanswered questions. In multivariable logistic regression, although the simple effects of the interaction term were different for patients of nonminority race (odds ratio [OR]: 2.16; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.19-3.92) and those of minority race (OR: 1.19; 95% CI: 0.54-2.66), the overall interaction effect was not statistically significant (P=0.24). CONCLUSION: The quality of patient-provider communication is critical for cardiovascular disease medication adherence. In this study, however, having unanswered questions did not impact medication adherence differently as a function of patients' race. Nevertheless, there were racial differences in medication adherence that may need to be addressed to ensure optimal adherence and health outcomes. Effort should be made to provide training opportunities for both patients and their providers to ensure strong communication skills and to address potential differences in medication adherence in patients of diverse backgrounds.

A systematic review of the effect of dietary exposure that could be achieved through normal dietary intake on learning and performance of school-aged children of relevance to UK schools

The aim of the present review was to perform a systematic in-depth review of the best evidence from controlled trial studies that have investigated the effects of nutrition, diet and dietary change on learning, education and performance in school-aged children (4-18 years) from the UK and other developed countries. The twenty-nine studies identified for the review examined the effects of breakfast consumption, sugar intake, fish oil and vitamin supplementation and 'good diets'. In summary, the studies included in the present review suggest there is insufficient evidence to identify any effect of nutrition, diet and dietary change on learning, education or performance of school-aged children from the developed world. However, there is emerging evidence for the effects of certain fatty acids which appear to be a function of dose and time. Further research is required in settings of relevance to the UK and must be of high quality, representative of all populations, undertaken for longer durations and use universal validated measures of educational attainment. However, challenges in terms of interpreting the results of such studies within the context of factors such as family and community context, poverty, disease and the rate of individual maturation and neurodevelopment will remain. Whilst the importance of diet in educational attainment remains under investigation, the evidence for promotion of lower-fat, -salt and -sugar diets, high in fruits, vegetables and complex carbohydrates, as well as promotion of physical activity remains unequivocal in terms of health outcomes for all schoolchildren.

Improving the quality of life for patients with angina pectoris: a team approach to disease management.

The evaluation of outcome of management of angina patients is now inextricably linked with an assessment of quality of life. Angina, as a manifestation of coronary heart disease, is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in many countries. Optimal management of patients with angina is of undeniable national and global significance.

This paper attempts to indicate the importance of a team approach and the implications for patients’ quality of life of involving professionals with a variety of different skills. It outlines current guidelines for the management of angina, including aspects of diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation. Factors of relevance to the management of patients as individuals are discussed. The association of improved quality of life and reduced severity of symptoms with benefit for both the individual and society is considered.

Self-Management of Chronic Pain: Interventions, Strategies, Barriers, and Facilitators

Background & Purpose: Chronic pain is a prevalent chronic condition for which the best management options rarely provide complete relief. Individuals with chronic pain with neuropathic characteristics (NC) report more severe pain and experience less relief from interventions. Little is known about current self-management practices. The purpose of this dissertation was to inform self-management of chronic pain with and without NC at the individual, health system, and policy levels using the Innovative Care for Chronic Conditions Framework. Methods: The study included a systematic search and review and cross-sectional survey. The review evaluated the evidence for chronic pain self-management interventions and explored the role of health care providers in supporting self-management. The survey was mailed to 8,000 randomly selected Canadians in November 2011, and non-respondents were followed-up in May 2012. Screening questions were included for both chronic pain and NC. The questionnaire captured pain descriptions, self-management strategies, and self-management barriers, and facilitators. Results: Findings of the review suggested that self-management interventions are effective in improving pain and health outcomes. Health care professionals provided self-management advice and referred individuals to self-management interventions. The questionnaire was completed by 1,520 Canadians. Those with chronic pain (n=710) identified primary care physicians as the most helpful pain management professional. Overall, use of non-pharmaceutical medical self-management strategies was low. While use positive emotional self-management strategies was high, individuals with NC were more likely to use negative emotional self-management strategies compared to those without NC. Multiple self-management barriers and facilitators were identified, however those with NC were more likely than those without NC to experience low self-efficacy, depression and severe pain which may impair the ability to self-management. Conclusions: Health care professionals have the opportunity to improve chronic pain outcomes by providing self-management advice, referring to self-management interventions, and addressing self-management barriers and facilitators. Individuals with NC may require additional health services to address their greater self-management challenges, and further research is needed to identify non-pharmaceutical interventions effective in relieving chronic pain with NC. Public policy is needed to facilitate health systems in providing long-term self-management support for individuals with chronic pain.

Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency in pregnant women: a longitudinal study.

Maternal vitamin D insufficiency is associated with childhood rickets and longer-term problems including schizophrenia and type 1 diabetes. Whilst maternal vitamin D insufficiency is common in mothers with highly pigmented skin, little is known about vitamin D status of Caucasian pregnant women. The aim was to investigate vitamin D status in healthy Caucasian pregnant women and a group of age-matched non-pregnant controls living at 54–55°N. In a longitudinal study, plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) was assessed in ninety-nine pregnant women at 12, 20 and 35 weeks of gestation, and in thirty-eight non-pregnant women sampled concurrently. Plasma 25(OH)D concentrations were lower in pregnant women compared to non-pregnant women (P < 0·0001). Of the pregnant women, 35, 44 and 16 % were classified as vitamin D deficient (25(OH)D < 25 nmol/l), and 96, 96 and 75 % were classified as vitamin D insufficient (25(OH)D < 50 nmol/l) at 12, 20 and 35 weeks gestation, respectively. Vitamin D status was higher in pregnant women who reported taking multivitamin supplements at 12 (P < 0·0001), 20 (P = 0·001) and 35 (P = 0·001) weeks gestation than in non-supplement users. Vitamin D insufficiency is evident in pregnant women living at 54–55°N. Women reporting use of vitamin D-containing supplements had higher vitamin D status, however, vitamin D insufficiency was still evident even in the face of supplement use. Given the potential consequences of hypovitaminosis D on health outcomes, vitamin D supplementation, perhaps at higher doses than currently available, is needed to improve maternal vitamin D nutriture.

Help needed in medication self-management for people with visual impairment: case-control study

Background: Visual impairment (VI) is rising in prevalence and contributing to increasing morbidity, particularly among older people. Understanding patients' problems is fundamental to achieving optimal health outcomes but little is known about how VI impacts on self-management of medication.

Aim: To compare issues relating to medication self-management between older people with and without VI.

Design and setting: Case-control study with participants aged =65 years, prescribed at least two long-term oral medications daily, living within the community.

Method: The study recruited 156 patients with VI (best corrected visual acuity [BCVA] 6/18 to 3/60) at low-vision clinics; community optometrists identified 158 controls (BCVA 6/9 or better). Researchers visited participants in their homes, administered two validated questionnaires to assess medication adherence (Morisky; Medication Adherence Report Scale [MARS]), and asked questions about medication self-management, beliefs, and support.

Results: Approximately half of the participants in both groups reported perfect adherence on both questionnaires (52.5% Morisky; 43.3%, MARS). Despite using optical aids, few (3%) with VI could read medication information clearly; 24% had difficulty distinguishing different tablets. More people with VI (29%) than controls (13%) (odds ratio [OR] = 2.8; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.6 to 5.0) needed help managing their medication, from friends (19% versus 10%) or pharmacists (10% versus 2.5%; OR = 4.4, 95% CI = 1.4 to 13.5); more received social service support (OR = 7.1; 95% CI = 3.9 to 12.9).

Conclusion: Compared to their peers without VI, older people with VI are more than twice as likely to need help in managing medication. In clinical practice in primary care, patients' needs for practical support in taking prescribed treatment must be recognised. Strategies for effective medication self-management should be explored.

A qualitative study of the relationship between clinician attributes, organization, and patient characteristics on implementation of a disease management program

The purpose of this study was to examine the challenges of integrating an asthma disease management (DM) program into a primary care setting from the perspective of primary care practitioners. A second goal was to examine whether barriers differed between urban-based and nonurban-based practices. Using a qualitative design, data were gathered using focus groups in primary care pediatric practices. A purposeful sample included an equal number of urban and nonurban practices. Participants represented all levels in the practice setting. Important themes that emerged from the data were coded and categorized. A total of 151 individuals, including physicians, advanced practice clinicians, registered nurses, other medical staff, and nonmedical staff participated in 16 focus groups that included 8 urban and 8 nonurban practices. Content analyses identified 4 primary factors influencing the implementation of a DM program in a primary care setting. They were related to providers, the organization, patients, and characteristics of the DM program. This study illustrates the complexity of the primary care environment and the challenge of changing practice in these settings. The results of this study identified areas in a primary care setting that influence the adoption of a DM program. These findings can assist in identifying effective strategies to change clinical behavior in primary care practices. © 2008 Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.