Are employment effects of gender discrimination important? Some evidence from Great Britain

Interpreting the unexplained component of the gender wage gap as indicative of discrimination, the empirical literature to date has tended to ignore the potential impact wage discrimination may have on employment. Employment effects may arise if discrimination lowers the female offered wage and the labour supply curve is upward sloping. The empirical analysis employs the British Household Panel Study and finds evidence of both wage and associated employment effects.

Studies on Wage Differentials and Labour Market Transitions

This thesis consists of four studies. The first study examines wage differentials between women and men in the Finnish manufacturing sector. A matched employer-employee data set is used to decompose the overall gender wage gap into the contributions of sex differences in human capital, labour market segregation, and residual within-job wage differentials. The topic of the second study is the relationship between the extended unemployment benefits and labour market transitions of older workers. The analysis exploits a quasi-experimental setting caused by a change in the law that raised the eligibility age of workers benefiting from extended benefits. Roughly half of the unemployed workers with extended benefits are estimated to be effectively withdrawn from labour market search. The risk of unemployment declined and the re-employment probability increased among the age groups directly affected by the reform. The third study provides an empirical analysis of a structural equilibrium search model. Estimation results from various model specifications are compared and discussed. The last study is a methodological study where the difficulties of interpreting the results of competing risks hazard models are discussed and a solution for a particular class of models is proposed. It is argued that a common practice of reporting the results of qualitative response models in terms of marginal effects is also useful in the context of competing risks duration models.

Is there a motherhood penalty? decomposing the family wage gap in Colombia

The aim of this paper is to provide an estimation and decomposition of the motherhood wage penalty in Colombia. Our empirical strategy was based on the matching procedure designed by Ñopo (The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(2), 290–299, 2008a ) for the case of gender wage gaps. This is an alternative procedure to the well-known Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition method. Using the cross-sectional data of the Colombian Living Standard Survey, the wage gap was decomposed into four components, according to the characteristics of mothers and non-mothers. Three of the components are explained by differences in observable characteristics of women, while the other is the unexplained part of the gap. We found that mothers earn, on average, 1.73 % less than their counterparts without children and that this gap slightly decreased when the group included older women. It is observed from the results that, once schooling was included as a matching variable, the unexplained part of the gap considerably decreased and became non-significant. Thus, we did not find evidence of wage discrimination against mothers in the Colombian labor market. Copyright Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Estimación de la discriminación salarial por género para los trabajadores asalariados urbanos de Colombia (1984-1999)

En este documento se realiza una nueva estimación de la discriminación salarial por género utilizando la metodología de descomposición de ecuaciones mincerianas sugerida por Oaxaca (1973) utilizando datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares 1984 – 1999. Se detecta un patrón estable que mantiene un diferencial salarial no explicado por variables de productividad, a favor de los hombres. Al parecer el incremento o reducción de esta brecha puede estar relacionado con el ciclo económico.

Wage differentials between the public and private sectors in Chile: Evidence from longitudinal data

Includes bibliography.

The macro level effects of gender - (un)fair language in Polish

A recent analysis of more than 100 countries found that the extent to which their languages grammatically allowed for an asymmetric treatment of men and women correlated with socio-economic indices of gender inequality (Prewitt-Freilino, Caswell, & Laakso, 2012). In a set of four studies we examine whether the availability of feminine forms as indicated by the most recent dictionaries (1) predicts the actual percentage of women and gender wage gap for all professions registered in Poland; (2) predicts the longitudinal pattern of use of the occupational job-titles; (3) relates to social perception of the sample of 150 professions.

Gender-preferential intergenerational patterns in primary education attainment : a quantitative analysis of a case of rural Mindanao, the Philippines

The Philippines has achieved a relatively high standard of education. Previous researches, most of which deal with Luzon Island, have indicated that rural poverty alleviation began partly due to the increased investment in education. However, the suburban areas beyond Luzon Island have rarely been studied. This study examines a case from rural Mindanao, and investigates the determinants and factors associated with children's education, with a special focus on delays in schooling, which may be a cause of dropout and holdover incidences, as well as exploring gender-specific differential patterns. The result shows that after controlling other socioeconomic attributes, (1) delays in schooling, as well as years completed, are more favorable for girls than boys; (2) the level of maternal education is equally associated with the child(ren)’s education level regardless of their gender; and (3) paternal education is preferentially and favorably influential to the same-gender child(ren), i.e., son(s). To reduce the boy-unfriendly gender bias in primary education, this study suggests two future tasks, i.e., providing boy-specific interventions to enhance the magnitude of the father-son educational virtuous circle, and comparing the magnitude of gender-equal maternal education influence and boy-preferential paternal education influence to specify which effect is larger.

Neoliberalism, Gender Inequality and the Australian Labour Market

Over the past 25 years neoliberal philosophies have increasingly informed labour market policies in Australia that have led to increasing levels of wage decentralization. The most recent industrial relations changes aim to decentralize wage setting significantly further than has previously been the case. We argue that this is problematic for gender equity as wage decentralization will entrench rather than challenge the undervaluation of feminized work. In this article we provide an overview of key neoliberal industrial relations policy changes pertinent to gender equity and examine the current state of gender equity in the labour market. Results show that women's labour force participation has steadily increased over time but that a number of negative trends exclude women with substantial caring responsibilities from pursuing a career track. The implications of increasing levels of wage deregulation are that gender wage inequality and the potential for discrimination will grow.

Earnings differences between Chinese and Indian wage earners, 1987-2004

This paper is one of the first comprehensive attempts to compare earnings in urban China and India over the recent period. While both economies have grown considerably, we illustrate significant cross-country differences in wage growth since the late 1980s. For this purpose, we make use of comparable datasets, estimate Mincer equations and perform Oaxaca–Blinder decompositions at the mean and at different points of the wage distribution. The initial wage differential in favor of Indian workers, observed in the middle and upper part of the distribution, partly disappears over time. While the 1980s Indian premium is mainly due to higher returns to education and experience, a combination of price and endowment effects explains why Chinese wages have caught up, especially since the mid-1990s. The price effect is only partly explained by the observed convergence in returns to education; the endowment effect is driven by faster increase in education levels in China and significantly accentuates the reversal of the wage gap in favor of this country for the first half of the wage distribution.

Does move to market have an impact on earnings gap across gender? Some evidence from India

We use Indian National Sample Survey employment–unemployment data for the urban sector for the years 1987 and 1999. Our results indicate that the gender wage gap had narrowed considerably between these two years, for all earnings deciles and for all education cohorts. The narrowing of the earnings gap can be attributed largely to a sharp increase in the returns to the labour market experience of women.

Diferencias regionales en las estructuras de ingresos laborales en Colombia

Dada la persistencia de las diferencias en ingresos laborales por regiones en Colombia, el presente artículo propone cuantificar la magnitud de este diferencial que es atribuida a la diferencia en estructuras de mercado laboral, entendiendo esta última como la diferencia en los retornos a las características de la fuerza laboral. Para ello se propone el uso de un método de descomposición del tipo Oaxaca- Blinder y se compara a Bogotá –la ciudad con mayores ingresos laborales- con otras ciudades principales. Los resultados obtenidos al conducir el ejercicio de descomposición muestran que las diferencias en estructura están a favor de Bogotá y que estas explican más de la mitad de la diferencia total, indicando que si se quieren reducir las disparidades de ingresos laborales entre ciudades no es suficiente con calificar la fuerza laboral y que es necesario indagar por las causas que hacen que los retornos a las características difieran entre ciudades.

Sex discrimination and non-random sampling in the Australian labour market

Historically a significant gap between male and female wages has existed in the Australian labour market. Indeed this wage differential was institutionalised in the 1912 arbitration decision which determined that the basic female wage would be set at between 54 and 66 per cent of the male wage. More recently however, the 1969 and 1972 Equal Pay Cases determined that male/female wage relativities should be based upon the premise of equal pay for work of equal value. It is important to note that the mere observation that average wages differ between males and females is not sine qua non evidence of sex discrimination. Economists restrict the definition of wage discrimination to cases where two distinct groups receive different average remuneration for reasons unrelated to differences in productivity characteristics. This paper extends previous studies of wage discrimination in Australia (Chapman and Mulvey, 1986; Haig, 1982) by correcting the estimated male/female wage differential for the existence of non-random sampling. Previous Australian estimates of male/female human capital basedwage specifications together with estimates of the corresponding wage differential all suffer from a failure to address this issue. If the sample of females observed to be working does not represent a random sample then the estimates of the male/female wage differential will be both biased and inconsistent.

Análisis de las condiciones laborales en las entidades de la economía social en España desde una perspectiva de género

Las empresas de economía social comparten unos valores que motivan un comportamiento diferente de éstas en relación con la composición de sus plantillas, las condiciones de trabajo, su especialización productiva y su ubicación geográfica frente a las empresas ordinarias (sociedades anónimas y laborales) que no son de economía social. Este comportamiento diferencial constituye, a su vez, una importante aportación a la cohesión social y, de forma específica, desde el punto de vista de género, proporciona una mejora de la presencia y posición de las mujeres en el ámbito laboral. El objetivo principal de esta investigación es evaluar la existencia de elementos diferenciales entre las empresas de economía social y las ordinarias en cuanto a la igualdad de oportunidades, condiciones y trayectorias laborales desde una perspectiva de género, centrando el estudio en el caso de España. A partir de la Muestra Continua de Vidas Laborales (2010) se identifican dos grupos de empresas, de economía social (grupo objetivo) y de economía "no social" u ordinaria (grupo de control) equivalentes en cuanto a tamaño y sector de actividad. Para cada grupo y sus respectivos/as trabajadores/as, se realizan contrastes paramétricos y no paramétricos de diferencias de medias entre mujeres y hombres en relación a diferentes características laborales como el tipo de jornada, la duración del contrato o la estabilidad en la trayectoria laboral en la empresa. Además, se lleva a cabo una estimación de la discriminación salarial en ambos grupos siguiendo el modelo Oaxaca-Blinder. Los resultados muestran que las empresas de economía social ofrecen mejores condiciones en el acceso y la permanencia en el puesto laboral a las mujeres, una mayor estabilidad laboral y menor discriminación salarial frente a los hombres.

Capital humain et différentiel de revenu chez les artistes canadiens

L’essence de la théorie du capital humain (Becker, 1964) prédit que l’investissement dans les activités visant à renforcer le potentiel productif des individus se traduit par une augmentation de leurs revenus tout au long de leur carrière (Benjamin, Gunderson et Riddell, 2002 : 245). Pour le groupe occupationnel constitué par les artistes, la littérature s’accorde pourtant pour dire que l’investissement en capital humain demeure rentable financièrement, mais à un niveau sensiblement moindre que pour les autres professions (Snooks, 1983; Filer, 1990; Rengers, 2002; Alper et Wassall, 2006). Nous exposons les théories du capital humain, des différences de salaire compensatoires (Smith, 1776) ainsi que la théorie hédonique des salaires (Rosen, 1974; Rosen et Thaler, 1975) afin d’atteindre deux objectifs. Premièrement, nous cherchons à vérifier empiriquement l’impact de l’acquisition de capital humain sur le revenu d’emploi autonome des artistes canadiens . Dans une autre perspective, nous souhaitons également évaluer la nature et la taille du différentiel de revenu d’emploi par rapport aux autres professions et investiguer les facteurs sur lesquels il repose. Le projet comble un vide dans la littérature portant sur les déterminants du revenu d’emploi des artistes canadiens et permet de réfléchir à l’orientation des politiques publiques culturelles entourant la formation académique de ceux-ci. Nous employons une analyse de régression multivariée sur des variables de capital humain en ayant recours aux données du recensement canadien de 2006 . Plus précisément, nous tentons de mesurer la relation associative entre le revenu de travail autonome exprimé sous forme de logarithme du salaire hebdomaire des artistes canadiens et la scolarité, l’expérience de travail, le sexe, le statut marital légal, la profession/spécialité artistique (classification selon la CNP-S, en vigueur en 2006), le statut d’immigrant, le statut de minorité visible, le fait d’être le principal soutien de la famille ainsi que la zone de résidence. Les résultats nous apprennent que la scolarité demeure rentable financièrement pour la majorité des spécialités artistiques, mais que des profils de scolarité précis ont avantage à être privilégiés selon la spécialité artistique. L’expérience de travail s’avère quant à elle moins rentable au niveau de la rémunération que chez les autres professions, tout comme elle est moins avantageuse financière pour les artistes issus des arts performatifs chez qui la carrière se termine habituellement assez tôt. En ce qui concerne l’effet des variables sociodémographiques, soulignons seulement que le fait d’être de sexe masculin est associé à de plus hauts revenus chez les artistes, mais dans une proportion moindre que chez les autres professions. Quant aux effets des statuts d’immigrant et de minorité visible sur le revenu d’emploi, ceux-ci varient mais demeurent moins pénalisants chez les artistes, ce qui suggère que le marché du travail culturel serait moins discriminant que le marché du travail traditionnel.

Inserción de la migración interna y el desplazamiento forzado en el mercado laboral urbano de Colombia. 2001-2005

Los resultados de la inserción económica de migrantes recientes y de desplazados forzados en el mercado laboral de las 10 principales ciudades de Colombia se analizan utilizando datos de la Encuesta Continua de Hogares. Adaptamos el marco teórico de selección del migrante internacional de Borjas (1982, 1985, 1987, 1990) al caso de la migración interna voluntaria e involuntaria y mediante estimaciones de modelos Logit de acceso al empleo y de ecuaciones mincerianas, ilustramos el proceso de selección positiva de los migrantes recientes y sustentamos empíricamente los resultados teóricos esperados de la inserción laboral del desplazado forzado al mercado laboral urbano, encontrando que exhibe menor probabilidad de acceso al empleo que el migrante económico y que el nativo, y padece un diferencial salarial explicado en gran parte por su condición de migrante forzado, lo cual ofrece sustento al efecto teórico esperado de una decisión exógena de migrar sugerido por Borjas (1987).