Simplified models for cross-section stress demands on C-section purlins in uplift

The objective of this paper is to provide and verify simplified models that predict the longitudinal stresses that develop in C-section purlins in uplift. The paper begins with the simple case of flexural stress: where the force has to be applied at the shear center, or the section braced in both flanges. Restrictions on load application point and restraint of the flanges are removed until arriving at the more complex problem of bending when movement of the tension flange alone is restricted, as commonly found in purlin-sheeting systems. Winter`s model for predicting the longitudinal stresses developed due to direct torsion is reviewed, verified, and then extended to cover the case of a bending member with tension flange restraint. The developed longitudinal stresses from flexure and restrained torsion are used to assess the elastic stability behavior of typical purlin-sheeting systems. Finally, strength predictions of typical C-section purlins are provided for existing AISI methods and a newly proposed extension to the direct strength method that employs the predicted longitudinal stress distributions within the strength prediction. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Capacity Enhancement Using MIMO Antenna Arrays in Realistic Macro-Cellular Urban Environment

In MIMO systems the antenna array configuration in the BS and MS has a large influence on the available channel capacity. In this paper, we first introduce a new Frequency Selective (FS) MIMO framework for macro-cells in a realistic urban environment. The MIMO channel is built over a previously developed directional channel model, which considers the terrain and clutter information in the cluster, line-of-sight and link loss calculations. Next, MIMO configuration characteristics are investigated in order to maximize capacity, mainly the number of antennas, inter-antenna spacing and SNR impact. Channel and capacity simulation results are presented for the city of Lisbon, Portugal, using different antenna configurations. Two power allocations schemes are considered, uniform distribution and FS spatial water-filling. The results suggest optimized MIMO configurations, considering the antenna array size limitations, specially at the MS side.

Dimensionamento de pilares mistos aço-betão segundo a EN 1994-1-1 através de uma aplicação informática

O presente trabalho debruça-se sobre as estruturas mistas aço-betão, com foco nos pilares mistos e no seu dimensionamento segundo a norma europeia EN1994-1-1 (EC4) [1]. Um pilar misto aço-betão pode definir-se como um elemento de aço, laminado ou composto, que trabalha em conjunto com o betão, podendo as secções serem classificados como revestidas ou preenchidas. Com a crescente evolução das técnicas construtivas, as estruturas mistas aço-betão aparecem como soluções viáveis e seguras, tornando-se numa opção competitiva em relação às soluções tradicionais de betão armado e de aço estrutural. Isto, devido à grande capacidade de carga proporcionada por secções mais reduzidas, à boa relação de rigidez e bom comportamento perante os fenómenos de encurvadura. Com o surgimento da recente norma europeia EC4, não obstante a complexidade das metodologias de verificação da segurança propostas, há uma maior confiança na utilização deste tipo de estrutura por parte dos projetistas. É neste contexto que surge a necessidade de desenvolver ferramentas de cálculo expedito que possam ser utilizadas em gabinete de projeto, salvaguardando todos os aspectos regulamentares de verificação da segurança preconizados no EC4, de que é exemplo o dimensionamento de pilares mistos abordados no presente trabalho. De forma a validar a ferramenta desenvolvida é proposto um caso de estudo, com o objectivo de obter soluções de pilares mistos com dimensões otimizadas, fazendo as verificações previstas no EC4. Os resultados obtidos na ferramenta são comparados com os resultados obtidos através de cálculos analíticos.

Dimensionamento de Uma Cobertura em Elementos Estruturais de Aço Enformados a Frio

O presente relatório versa sobre a análise e dimensionamento de estruturas de aço enformadas a frio. Devido a serem estruturas de elevada esbelteza, frequentemente denominadas “estruturas de aço leve”, apresentam fenómenos de instabilidade tanto a nível local como global, sendo da perspetiva regulamentar abrangidas pelo Eurocódigo 3, nomeadamente pelas Partes 1-1, 1-3 e 1-5. A Parte 1-3 do Eurocódigo 3 diz respeito às regras suplementares de elementos de aço enformados a frio, na qual estão presentes as regras de dimensionamento, bem como as verificações de segurança que deverão ser aplicadas. Nesta, é possível ainda “fazer a ponte” com a Parte 1-1 do Eurocódigo 3, respetiva às regras gerais de projeto de estruturas de aço e com a Parte 1-5 do Eurocódigo 3 relativa a elementos estruturais constituídos por placas. Inicialmente, será realizado um estado da arte, onde será efetuado um enquadramento histórico, apresentando o processo de fabrico destes elementos e o tipo de elementos estruturais originados, concluindo-se com as vantagens/desvantagens dos perfis em aço enformados a frio. Os conceitos teóricos de estabilidade estrutural, os tipos de instabilidade mais comuns nestes elementos, bem como os tipos de análise destes fenómenos farão a ponte com o capítulo que se segue. Relativamente ao dimensionamento destes elementos, será dado enfâse às metodologias preconizadas pelo Eurocódigo 3, Parte 1-3. Este capítulo incidirá, entre outos, nas propriedades das secções transversais, na determinação da resistência destas, onde se contabilizará os efeitos das instabilidades locais de placa e distorcionais, na instabilidade global dos perfis e nas ligações entre os mesmos. Será analisada, posteriormente, a abordagem apresentada pela ECCS relativamente ao dimensionamento de madres travadas por painéis de cobertura. Neste capítulo será apresentada a metodologia para o dimensionamento de vigas com restrição à torção e à translação, bem como a resistência da secção transversal da madre e do seu banzo livre à encurvadura. Finalmente, e ao encontro do que foi proposto pela empresa CCAD-Serviços de Engenharia, Lda, efetuar-se-á o dimensionamento de uma cobertura de um edifício de distribuição, cobertura esta constituída por asnas treliçadas e madres simples. Neste dimensionamento foram consideradas as ações segundo o Regulamento de Segurança e Ações Para Estruturas de Edifícios e Pontes e o Eurocódigo 1, Parte 1-1 que diz respeito às Ações Gerais em Estruturas e Parte 1-4 respeitante às Ações do vento.

Assessment of Weathering Steel Bridge Performance in Iowa and Development of Inspection and Maintenance Techniques, RB17-012, 2013

Weathering steel is commonly used as a cost-effective alternative for bridge superstructures, as the costs and environmental impacts associated with the maintenance/replacement of paint coatings are theoretically eliminated. The performance of weathering steel depends on the proper formation of a surface patina, which consists of a dense layer of corrosion product used to protect the steel from further atmospheric corrosion. The development of the weathering steel patina may be hindered by environmental factors such as humid environments, wetting/drying cycles, sheltering, exposure to de-icing chlorides, and design details that permit water to pond on steel surfaces. Weathering steel bridges constructed over or adjacent to other roadways could be subjected to sufficient salt spray that would impede the development of an adequate patina. Addressing areas of corrosion on a weathering steel bridge superstructure where a protective patina has not formed is often costly and negates the anticipated cost savings for this type of steel superstructure. Early detection of weathering steel corrosion is important to extending the service life of the bridge structure; however, written inspection procedures are not available for inspectors to evaluate the performance or quality of the patina. This project focused on the evaluation of weathering steel bridge structures, including possible methods to assess the quality of the weathering steel patina and to properly maintain the quality of the patina. The objectives of this project are summarized as follows:  Identify weathering steel bridge structures that would be most vulnerable to chloride contamination, based on location, exposure, environment, and other factors.  Identify locations on an individual weathering steel bridge structure that would be most susceptible to chloride contamination, such as below joints, splash/spray zones, and areas of ponding water or debris.  Identify possible testing methods and/or inspection techniques for inspectors to evaluate the quality of the weathering steel patina at locations discussed above.  Identify possible methods to measure and evaluate the level of chloride contamination at the locations discussed above.  Evaluate the effectiveness of water washing on removing chlorides from the weathering steel patina.  Develop a general prioritization for the washing of bridge structures based on the structure’s location, environment, inspection observations, patina evaluation findings, and chloride test results.

Tapping the innovation potential of corporate engagement with stakeholders

Summary This dissertation explores how stakeholder dialogue influences corporate processes, and speculates about the potential of this phenomenon - particularly with actors, like non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other representatives of civil society, which have received growing attention against a backdrop of increasing globalisation and which have often been cast in an adversarial light by firms - as a source of teaming and a spark for innovation in the firm. The study is set within the context of the introduction of genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe. Its significance lies in the fact that scientific developments and new technologies are being generated at an unprecedented rate in an era where civil society is becoming more informed, more reflexive, and more active in facilitating or blocking such new developments, which could have the potential to trigger widespread changes in economies, attitudes, and lifestyles, and address global problems like poverty, hunger, climate change, and environmental degradation. In the 1990s, companies using biotechnology to develop and offer novel products began to experience increasing pressure from civil society to disclose information about the risks associated with the use of biotechnology and GMOs, in particular. Although no harmful effects for humans or the environment have been factually demonstrated even to date (2008), this technology remains highly-contested and its introduction in Europe catalysed major companies to invest significant financial and human resources in stakeholder dialogue. A relatively new phenomenon at the time, with little theoretical backing, dialogue was seen to reflect a move towards greater engagement with stakeholders, commonly defined as those "individuals or groups with which. business interacts who have a 'stake', or vested interest in the firm" (Carroll, 1993:22) with whom firms are seen to be inextricably embedded (Andriof & Waddock, 2002). Regarding the organisation of this dissertation, Chapter 1 (Introduction) describes the context of the study, elaborates its significance for academics and business practitioners as an empirical work embedded in a sector at the heart of the debate on corporate social responsibility (CSR). Chapter 2 (Literature Review) traces the roots and evolution of CSR, drawing on Stakeholder Theory, Institutional Theory, Resource Dependence Theory, and Organisational Learning to establish what has already been developed in the literature regarding the stakeholder concept, motivations for engagement with stakeholders, the corporate response to external constituencies, and outcomes for the firm in terms of organisational learning and change. I used this review of the literature to guide my inquiry and to develop the key constructs through which I viewed the empirical data that was gathered. In this respect, concepts related to how the firm views itself (as a victim, follower, leader), how stakeholders are viewed (as a source of pressure and/or threat; as an asset: current and future), corporate responses (in the form of buffering, bridging, boundary redefinition), and types of organisational teaming (single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop) and change (first order, second order, third order) were particularly important in building the key constructs of the conceptual model that emerged from the analysis of the data. Chapter 3 (Methodology) describes the methodology that was used to conduct the study, affirms the appropriateness of the case study method in addressing the research question, and describes the procedures for collecting and analysing the data. Data collection took place in two phases -extending from August 1999 to October 2000, and from May to December 2001, which functioned as `snapshots' in time of the three companies under study. The data was systematically analysed and coded using ATLAS/ti, a qualitative data analysis tool, which enabled me to sort, organise, and reduce the data into a manageable form. Chapter 4 (Data Analysis) contains the three cases that were developed (anonymised as Pioneer, Helvetica, and Viking). Each case is presented in its entirety (constituting a `within case' analysis), followed by a 'cross-case' analysis, backed up by extensive verbatim evidence. Chapter 5 presents the research findings, outlines the study's limitations, describes managerial implications, and offers suggestions for where more research could elaborate the conceptual model developed through this study, as well as suggestions for additional research in areas where managerial implications were outlined. References and Appendices are included at the end. This dissertation results in the construction and description of a conceptual model, grounded in the empirical data and tied to existing literature, which portrays a set of elements and relationships deemed important for understanding the impact of stakeholder engagement for firms in terms of organisational learning and change. This model suggests that corporate perceptions about the nature of stakeholder influence the perceived value of stakeholder contributions. When stakeholders are primarily viewed as a source of pressure or threat, firms tend to adopt a reactive/defensive posture in an effort to manage stakeholders and protect the firm from sources of outside pressure -behaviour consistent with Resource Dependence Theory, which suggests that firms try to get control over extemal threats by focussing on the relevant stakeholders on whom they depend for critical resources, and try to reverse the control potentially exerted by extemal constituencies by trying to influence and manipulate these valuable stakeholders. In situations where stakeholders are viewed as a current strategic asset, firms tend to adopt a proactive/offensive posture in an effort to tap stakeholder contributions and connect the organisation to its environment - behaviour consistent with Institutional Theory, which suggests that firms try to ensure the continuing license to operate by internalising external expectations. In instances where stakeholders are viewed as a source of future value, firms tend to adopt an interactive/innovative posture in an effort to reduce or widen the embedded system and bring stakeholders into systems of innovation and feedback -behaviour consistent with the literature on Organisational Learning, which suggests that firms can learn how to optimize their performance as they develop systems and structures that are more adaptable and responsive to change The conceptual model moreover suggests that the perceived value of stakeholder contribution drives corporate aims for engagement, which can be usefully categorised as dialogue intentions spanning a continuum running from low-level to high-level to very-high level. This study suggests that activities aimed at disarming critical stakeholders (`manipulation') providing guidance and correcting misinformation (`education'), being transparent about corporate activities and policies (`information'), alleviating stakeholder concerns (`placation'), and accessing stakeholder opinion ('consultation') represent low-level dialogue intentions and are experienced by stakeholders as asymmetrical, persuasive, compliance-gaining activities that are not in line with `true' dialogue. This study also finds evidence that activities aimed at redistributing power ('partnership'), involving stakeholders in internal corporate processes (`participation'), and demonstrating corporate responsibility (`stewardship') reflect high-level dialogue intentions. This study additionally finds evidence that building and sustaining high-quality, trusted relationships which can meaningfully influence organisational policies incline a firm towards the type of interactive, proactive processes that underpin the development of sustainable corporate strategies. Dialogue intentions are related to type of corporate response: low-level intentions can lead to buffering strategies; high-level intentions can underpin bridging strategies; very high-level intentions can incline a firm towards boundary redefinition. The nature of corporate response (which encapsulates a firm's posture towards stakeholders, demonstrated by the level of dialogue intention and the firm's strategy for dealing with stakeholders) favours the type of learning and change experienced by the organisation. This study indicates that buffering strategies, where the firm attempts to protect itself against external influences and cant' out its existing strategy, typically lead to single-loop learning, whereby the firm teams how to perform better within its existing paradigm and at most, improves the performance of the established system - an outcome associated with first-order change. Bridging responses, where the firm adapts organisational activities to meet external expectations, typically leads a firm to acquire new behavioural capacities characteristic of double-loop learning, whereby insights and understanding are uncovered that are fundamentally different from existing knowledge and where stakeholders are brought into problem-solving conversations that enable them to influence corporate decision-making to address shortcomings in the system - an outcome associated with second-order change. Boundary redefinition suggests that the firm engages in triple-loop learning, where the firm changes relations with stakeholders in profound ways, considers problems from a whole-system perspective, examining the deep structures that sustain the system, producing innovation to address chronic problems and develop new opportunities - an outcome associated with third-order change. This study supports earlier theoretical and empirical studies {e.g. Weick's (1979, 1985) work on self-enactment; Maitlis & Lawrence's (2007) and Maitlis' (2005) work and Weick et al's (2005) work on sensegiving and sensemaking in organisations; Brickson's (2005, 2007) and Scott & Lane's (2000) work on organisational identity orientation}, which indicate that corporate self-perception is a key underlying factor driving the dynamics of organisational teaming and change. Such theorizing has important implications for managerial practice; namely, that a company which perceives itself as a 'victim' may be highly inclined to view stakeholders as a source of negative influence, and would therefore be potentially unable to benefit from the positive influence of engagement. Such a selfperception can blind the firm from seeing stakeholders in a more positive, contributing light, which suggests that such firms may not be inclined to embrace external sources of innovation and teaming, as they are focussed on protecting the firm against disturbing environmental influences (through buffering), and remain more likely to perform better within an existing paradigm (single-loop teaming). By contrast, a company that perceives itself as a 'leader' may be highly inclined to view stakeholders as a source of positive influence. On the downside, such a firm might have difficulty distinguishing when stakeholder contributions are less pertinent as it is deliberately more open to elements in operating environment (including stakeholders) as potential sources of learning and change, as the firm is oriented towards creating space for fundamental change (through boundary redefinition), opening issues to entirely new ways of thinking and addressing issues from whole-system perspective. A significant implication of this study is that potentially only those companies who see themselves as a leader are ultimately able to tap the innovation potential of stakeholder dialogue.

Kevyiden rakennemateriaalien soveltamismahdollisuudet metsäkoneissa

Asiakkaiden ympäristötietoisuus, metsäkoneille asetettavat korkeat vaatimukset ja kiristyvä kilpailu pakottavat metsäkoneiden valmistajat etsimään vaihtoehtoisia valmistusmateriaaleja, joita käyttämällä metsäkoneet kevenevät ja sitä kautta niiden ympäristökuormitukset ja käyttökustannukset alenevat ja kapasiteetti kasvaa. Metsäkoneiden rakenteiden keventämisessä alumiini on yksi varteenotettava vaihtoehto teräksen korvaajaksi, sillä alumiinin ominaisuus/paino -suhde on terästä parempi. Alumiinin käyttöä hitsatuissa rakenteissa ovat rajoittaneet sen korkea hinta ja melko huono väsymiskestävyys. Diplomityön tavoitteena on ollut selvittää mahdollisuuksia korvata metsäkoneiden rakenteista löytyviä teräksestä valmistettuja osia alumiinista valmistetuilla osilla. Diplomityön teoriaosassa on käsitelty rakenteiden keventämistä, metsäkoneille asetettavia vaatimuksia, alumiinien materiaaliominaisuuksia, alumiinirakenteiden valmistuksessa käytettäviä menetelmiä sekä alumiinirakenteiden suunnittelua. Lisäksi teoriaosassa on käsitelty komposiittien materiaaliominaisuuksia ja komposiittirakenteiden suunnittelua. Diplomityön kokeellisessa osassa on vertailtu nykyisiä rakennemateriaaleja ja alumiineja metsäkoneen eri osien rakennemateriaaleina osien vaatimusprofiileihin ja materiaalien ominaisuusprofiileihin perustuen. Vaatimusprofiilien perusteella on laadittu ominaisuusprofiilit alumiineille ja teräksille. Sovittamalla vaatimus- ja ominaisuusprofiilit yhteen arvoanalyysin avulla, metsäkoneista on etsitty mahdollisia kohteita, joissa nykyinen rakennemateriaali voitaisiin korvata alumiinilla. Tältä pohjalta metsäkoneista löytyi rakenteita, joissa alumiinin käyttö rakennemateriaalina teräksen sijaan olisi mahdollista. Diplomityö toimii hyvänä pohjana tutkittaessa mahdollisuuksia metsäkoneiden rakenteiden keventämiseksi.

Raskaita teräsrakenteita valmistavan tilauskonepajan tuotannon kehittäminen

Diplomityössä tarkastellaan raskaita teräsrakenteita valmistavan tilauskonepajan tuotannon kehittämiskohteita. Tuotannon kehittämisellä halutaan nopeuttaa tuotannon läpimenoaikoja, vähentää laatukustannuksia ja parantaa yrityksen tiedonkulkua. Näillä toimenpiteillä pyritään vaikuttamaan yrityksen kilpailukykyyn, jolloin se voi nousta suomalaisessa toimittajaverkostossa korkeammalle portaalle. Työn teoriaosassa paneudutaan tuottavuus- ja laatuajatteluun hitsaavassa konepajassa. Samalla esitellään eräitä konepajoissa tyypillisimmin käytettyjä laatustandardeja, joita ovat: SFS-EN ISO 9001, SFS-EN ISO 3834 ja SFS-EN 1090. Lisäksi teoriaosiossa on kerrottu erilaisista tuotannonohjausjärjestelmistä ja layout-teorioista. Tämän diplomityön kohdeyritys on Karjalan Konepaja Oy. Yrityksen nykytilanteen kartoittamiseksi suoritettiin useita haastatteluita sekä laadittiin koko organisaatiota koskeva kysely. Tilauskonepajan haasteena ovat alati muuttuvat tilaukset. Tilauskonepajan tuotannon kehittäminen tulee aloittaa sopivien tuotannontehokkuutta mittaavien mittareiden määrittämisellä. Usein kapasiteetti ja tuottavuus kuvastavat parhaiten työvaiheiden tehokkuutta. Mittareiden tarkoitus on auttaa konepajaa löytämään ne tuotannon pullonkaulat, joista yrityksen kehittäminen tulisi aloittaa. Lean-filosofian avulla tulee kehittää tuotannosta hitaimmin suoriutuvia työvaiheita. Tarkoituksena on poistaa valmistusketjusta sellaiset työvaiheet, jotka eivät anna tuotteelle lisäarvoa. Lisäksi työpisteiden layout kannattaa kyseenalaistaa aika ajoin, sillä jo pienilläkin muutoksilla voidaan saada parannuksia työpisteiden tuottavuuteen ja kapasiteettiin.

Double grade – rakenneputkien puristuskestävyys

Double grade S420MH/S355J2H – rakenneputki on Ruukin kylmämuovattujen rakenneputkien vakioteräslaji. Se voidaan mitoittaa joko lujuusluokan S355 tai S420 mukaisesti. Teräslajin S355 mukaisesti mitoitettaessa on suunnittelu yksinkertaista. Painonsäästöä ja pidennettyjä jännevälejä haluttaessa käytetään lujuusluokan S420 mukaista mitoitusta. Työn tavoitteena oli selvittää kylmämuovattujen teräsrakenneputkien todellinen puristuskestävyys. Eurocode 3:n mukaan kylmämuovatut teräsrakenneputket kuuluvat nurjahduskäyrälle c. Tutkimukseen valittiin viisi eri profiilia olevaa rakenneputkea, joiden poikkileikkausluokat olivat 1, 2, 3 ja 4. Käytettäessä rakenneputkia puristussauvoina, on teräksen käyttö tehokkainta poikkileikkausluokassa 3, lähellä poikkileikkausluokkaa 4. Rakenneputkista laskettiin muunnetun hoikkuuden arvoilla 0.1, 0.5, 1.0 ja 1.5 koesauvojen pituudet kaikille profiileille. Valmistettiin kolme samanlaista koesauvaa jokaisesta koosta ja puristuskokeita suoritettiin yhteensä 57 kappaletta. Koesauvojen todelliset pituudet, alkukäyryydet ja poikkileikkaukset mitattiin. Ainestodistuksista saatiin materiaalin todelliset lujuudet. Laskettiin Eurocode 3:n mukaisesti kestävyydet nurjahduskäyrille a, b ja c. Laskennallisia kestävyyksiä verrattiin puristuskokeiden tuloksiin. Puristuskokeiden tulosten perusteella voidaan b-käyrää pitää oikeana profiileille 100x100x3, 150,150x5 ja 200x200x6. Profiili 150x150x5 kuuluu poikkileikkausluokkaan 2. Profiilit 100x100x3 ja 200x200x6 kuuluvat poikkileikkausluokkaan 4. Profiili 50x50x2 kuuluu nurjahduskäyrälle c. Profiilin poikkileikkausluokka on 1 ja aiemmat tutkimukset tukevat nurjahduskäyrän c käyttöä. Profiilista 300x300x8.8 ei saatu testattua täyttä sarjaa sen suuren kapasiteetin rikottua testilaitteiston, mutta puristuskokeiden perusteella se kuuluu nurjahduskäyrälle b. Profiili kuuluu poikkileikkausluokkaan 4.

Effects of Fabrication Processes on the Behavior of S960 Ultra High Strength Steel (UHSS)

Strenx® 960 MC is a direct quenched type of Ultra High Strength Steel (UHSS) with low carbon content. Although this material combines high strength and good ductility, it is highly sensitive towards fabrication processes. The presence of stress concentration due to structural discontinuity or notch will highlight the role of these fabrication effects on the deformation capacity of the material. Due to this, a series of tensile tests are done on both pure base material (BM) and when it has been subjected to Heat Input (HI) and Cold Forming (CF). The surface of the material was dressed by laser beam with a certain speed to study the effect of HI while the CF is done by bending the specimen to a certain angle prior to tensile test. The generated results illustrate the impact of these processes on the deformation capacity of the material, specially, when the material has HI experience due to welding or similar processes. In order to compare the results with those of numerical simulation, LS-DYNA explicit commercial package has been utilized. The generated results show an acceptable agreement between experimental and numerical simulation outcomes.

Convenience of scallops in plate structures

In this thesis was performed comprehensive study about the convenience of scallops in plate structures. A literature review was performed and lack of knowledge was fulfilled with fatigue tests performed in the laboratory of Steel Structures at the Lappeenranta University of Technology and with finite element method. The aim of this thesis was to produce design guidance for the use of scallops for different structural details and different loading conditions. An additional aim was to include more precise instructions for scallop design to produce good fatigue resistance and appropriate manufacturing quality. The literature review was performed searching bridge engineering and maritime standards and design guides and studies from scientific databases and reference lists from the literature of this field. Fatigue tests were used to research the effect of using scallops or not using scallops to fatigue strength of bracket specimen. Tests were performed on three specimens with different scallop radii and to five specimens without scallops with different weld penetration depths. Finite element method using solid elements, symmetry and submodels was used to determine stress concentration factors for I-beams with scallops. Stresses were defined with hot spot stress method. Choosing to use a scallop or not in the structure is affected by many factors, such as structural and loading conditions and manufacturability. As a rule of thumb, scallops should be avoided because those cause stress concentration points to the structure and take a lot of time to manufacture. When scallops are not used, good quality welding should be provided and full weld penetration is recommended to be used in load carrying corner weld areas. In some cases, it is advisable to use scallops. In that case, circular scallops are recommended to be used and radius should be chosen from fatigue strength or manufacturing point of view.

Verbesserung der seismischen Kapazität von Mauerwerkswänden durch Verwendung von Elastomerlagern

Ein großer Teil der Schäden wie auch der Verluste an Gesundheit und Leben im Erdbebenfall hat mit dem frühzeitigen Versagen von Mauerwerksbauten zu tun. Unbewehrtes Mauerwerk, wie es in vielen Ländern üblich ist, weist naturgemäß einen begrenzten Erdbebenwiderstand auf, da Zugspannungen und Zugkräfte nicht wie bei Stahlbeton- oder Stahlbauten aufgenommen werden können. Aus diesem Grund wurde bereits mit verschiedenen Methoden versucht, die Tragfähigkeit von Mauerwerk im Erdbebenfall zu verbessern. Modernes Mauerwerk kann auch als bewehrtes oder eingefasstes Mauerwerk hergestellt werden. Bei bewehrtem Mauerwerk kann durch die Bewehrung der Widerstand bei Beanspruchung als Scheibe wie als Platte verbessert werden, während durch Einfassung mit Stahlbetonelementen in erster Linie die Scheibentragfähigkeit sowie die Verbindung zu angrenzenden Bauteilen verbessert wird. Eine andere interessante Möglichkeit ist das Aufbringen textiler Mauerwerksverstärkungen oder von hochfesten Lamellen. In dieser Arbeit wird ein ganz anderer Weg beschritten, indem weiche Fugen Spannungsspitzen reduzieren sowie eine höhere Verformbarkeit gewährleiten. Dies ist im Erdbebenfall sehr hilfreich, da die Widerstandfähigkeit eines Bauwerks oder Bauteils letztlich von der Energieaufnahmefähigkeit, also dem Produkt aus Tragfähigkeit und Verformbarkeit bestimmt wird. Wenn also gleichzeitig durch die weichen Fugen keine Schwächung oder sogar eine Tragfähigkeitserhöhung stattfindet, kann der Erdbebenwiderstand gesteigert werden. Im Kern der Dissertation steht die Entwicklung der Baukonstruktion einer Mauerwerkstruktur mit einer neuartigen Ausbildung der Mauerwerksfugen, nämlich Elastomerlager und Epoxydharzkleber anstatt üblichem Dünnbettmörtel. Das Elastomerlager wird zwischen die Steinschichten einer Mauerwerkswand eingefügt und damit verklebt. Die Auswirkung dieses Ansatzes auf das Verhalten der Mauerwerkstruktur wird unter dynamischer und quasi-statischer Last numerisch und experimentell untersucht und dargestellt.

Composite connections in slim-floor system: An experimental study

This paper reports the results of full-scale tests in beam-to-column connections for composite slim floor systems, including tests on Bare Steel connection and composite connection. The tested system consists of a concrete-filled composite column and a composite floor where an asymmetric steel beam is connected to a composite column by shear steel plates. Tests results previously obtained on partially encased composite beams were used to define the position of the headed studs in the slim floor system. Based on the obtained results of connections, the composite and Bare Steel connection behaved as semi-rigid and nominally pinned respectively. The tests results also indicated a significant contribution of the slim floor to the moment capacity of the connection. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Using the Natural Period of a Structure as an Indicator of the Significance of Second-Order Effects

This study investigates the feasibility of predicting the momentamplification in beam-column elements of steel moment-resisting frames using the structure's natural period. Unlike previous methods, which perform moment-amplification on a story-by-story basis, this study develops and tests two models that aim to predict a global amplification factor indicative of the largest relevant instance of local moment amplification in the structure. To thisend, a variety of two-dimensional frames is investigated using first and secondorder finite element analysis. The observed moment amplification is then compared with the predicted amplification based on the structure's natural period, which is calculated by first-order finite element analysis. As a benchmark, design moment amplification factors are calculated for each story using the story stiffness approach, and serve to demonstrate the relativeconservatism and accuracy of the proposed models with respect to current practice in design. The study finds that the observed moment amplification factors may vastly exceed expectations when internal member stresses are initially very small. Where the internal stresses are small relative to the member capacities, thesecases are inconsequential for design. To qualify the significance of the observed amplification factors, two parameters are used: the second-order moment normalized to the plastic moment capacity, and the combined flexural and axial stress interaction equations developed by AISC

Análisis del comportamiento de uniones metálicas viga-soporte mediante modelo de elementos finitos y comparación de resultados con el modelo de nudos y barras

Para el proyecto y cálculo de estructuras metálicas, fundamentalmente pórticos y celosías de cubierta, la herramienta más comúnmente utilizada son los programas informáticos de nudos y barras. En estos programas se define la geometría y sección de las barras, cuyas características mecánicas son perfectamente conocidas, y sobre las cuales obtenemos unos resultados de cálculo concretos en cuanto a estados tensionales y de deformación. Sin embargo el otro componente del modelo, los nudos, presenta mucha mayor complejidad a la hora de establecer sus propiedades mecánicas, fundamentalmente su rigidez al giro, así como de obtener unos resultados de estados tensionales y de deformación en los mismos. Esta “ignorancia” sobre el comportamiento real de los nudos, se salva generalmente asimilando a los nudos del modelo la condición de rígidos o articulados. Si bien los programas de cálculo ofrecen la posibilidad de introducir nudos con una rigidez intermedia (nudos semirrígidos), la rigidez de cada nudo dependerá de la geometría real de la unión, lo cual, dada la gran variedad de geometrías de uniones que en cualquier proyecto se nos presentan, hace prácticamente inviable introducir los coeficientes correspondientes a cada nudo en los modelos de nudos y barras. Tanto el Eurocódigo como el CTE, establecen que cada unión tendrá asociada una curva momento-rotación característica, que deberá ser determinada por los proyectistas mediante herramientas de cálculo o procedimientos experimentales. No obstante, este es un planteamiento difícil de llevar a cabo para cada proyecto. La consecuencia de esto es, que en la práctica, se realizan extensas comprobaciones y justificaciones de cálculo para las barras de las estructuras, dejando en manos de la práctica común la solución y puesta en obra de las uniones, quedando sin justificar ni comprobar la seguridad y el comportamiento real de estas. Otro aspecto que conlleva la falta de caracterización de las uniones, es que desconocemos como afecta el comportamiento real de éstas en los estados tensionales y de deformación de las barras que acometen a ellas, dudas que con frecuencia nos asaltan, no sólo en la fase de proyecto, sino también a la hora de resolver los problemas de ejecución que inevitablemente se nos presentan en el desarrollo de las obras. El cálculo mediante el método de los elementos finitos, es una herramienta que nos permite introducir la geometría real de perfiles y uniones, y nos permite por tanto abordar el comportamiento real de las uniones, y que está condicionado por su geometría. Por ejemplo, un caso típico es el de la unión de una viga a una placa o a un soporte soldando sólo el alma. Es habitual asimilar esta unión a una articulación. Sin embargo, el modelo por elementos finitos nos ofrece su comportamiento real, que es intermedio entre articulado y empotrado, ya que se transmite un momento y el giro es menor que el del apoyo simple. No obstante, la aplicación del modelo de elementos finitos, introduciendo la geometría de todos los elementos estructurales de un entramado metálico, tampoco resulta en general viable desde un punto de vista práctico, dado que requiere invertir mucho tiempo en comparación con el aumento de precisión que obtenemos respecto a los programas de nudos y barras, mucho más rápidos en la fase de modelización de la estructura. En esta tesis se ha abordado, mediante la modelización por elementos finitos, la resolución de una serie de casos tipo representativos de las uniones más comúnmente ejecutadas en obras de edificación, como son las uniones viga-pilar, estableciendo el comportamiento de estas uniones en función de las variables que comúnmente se presentan, y que son: •Ejecución de uniones viga-pilar soldando solo por el alma (unión por el alma), o bien soldando la viga al pilar por todo su perímetro (unión total). •Disposición o no de rigidizadores en los pilares •Uso de pilares de sección 2UPN en cajón o de tipo HEB, que son los tipos de soporte utilizados en casi el 100% de los casos en edificación. Para establecer la influencia de estas variables en el comportamiento de las uniones, y su repercusión en las vigas, se ha realizado un análisis comparativo entre las variables de resultado de los casos estudiados:•Estados tensionales en vigas y uniones. •Momentos en extremo de vigas •Giros totales y relativos en nudos. •Flechas. Otro de los aspectos que nos permite analizar la casuística planteada, es la valoración, desde un punto de vista de costos de ejecución, de la realización de uniones por todo el perímetro frente a las uniones por el alma, o de la disposición o no de rigidizadores en las uniones por todo el perímetro. Los resultados a este respecto, son estrictamente desde un punto de vista económico, sin perjuicio de que la seguridad o las preferencias de los proyectistas aconsejen una solución determinada. Finalmente, un tercer aspecto que nos ha permitido abordar el estudio planteado, es la comparación de resultados que se obtienen por el método de los elementos finitos, más próximos a la realidad, ya que se tiene en cuenta los giros relativos en las uniones, frente a los resultados obtenidos con programas de nudos y barras. De esta forma, podemos seguir usando el modelo de nudos y barras, más versátil y rápido, pero conociendo cuáles son sus limitaciones, y en qué aspectos y en qué medida, debemos ponderar sus resultados. En el último apartado de la tesis se apuntan una serie de temas sobre los que sería interesante profundizar en posteriores estudios, mediante modelos de elementos finitos, con el objeto de conocer mejor el comportamiento de las uniones estructurales metálicas, en aspectos que no se pueden abordar con los programas de nudos y barras. For the project and calculation of steel structures, mainly building frames and cover lattices, the tool more commonly used are the node and bars model computer programs. In these programs we define the geometry and section of the bars, whose mechanical characteristics are perfectly known, and from which we obtain the all calculation results of stresses and displacements. Nevertheless, the other component of the model, the nodes, are much more difficulty for establishing their mechanical properties, mainly the rotation fixity coefficients, as well as the stresses and displacements. This "ignorance" about the real performance of the nodes, is commonly saved by assimilating to them the condition of fixed or articulated. Though the calculation programs offer the possibility to introducing nodes with an intermediate fixity (half-fixed nodes), the fixity of every node will depend on the real connection’s geometry, which, given the great variety of connections geometries that in a project exist, makes practically unviable to introduce the coefficients corresponding to every node in the models of nodes and bars. Both Eurocode and the CTE, establish that every connection will have a typical moment-rotation associated curve, which will have to be determined for the designers by calculation tools or experimental procedures. Nevertheless, this one is an exposition difficult to carry out for each project. The consequence of this, is that in the practice, in projects are extensive checking and calculation reports about the bars of the structures, trusting in hands of the common practice the solution and execution of the connections, resulting without justification and verification their safety and their real behaviour. Another aspect that carries the lack of the connections characterization, is that we don´t know how affects the connections real behaviour in the stresses and displacements of the bars that attack them, doubts that often assault us, not only in the project phase, but also at the moment of solving the execution problems that inevitably happen in the development of the construction works. The calculation by finite element model is a tool that allows us to introduce the real profiles and connections geometry, and allows us to know about the real behaviour of the connections, which is determined by their geometry. Typical example is a beam-plate or beam-support connection welding only by the web. It is usual to assimilate this connection to an articulation or simple support. Nevertheless, the finite element model determines its real performance, which is between articulated and fixed, since a moment is transmitted and the relative rotation is less than the articulation’s rotation. Nevertheless, the application of the finite element model, introducing the geometry of all the structural elements of a metallic structure, does not also turn out to be viable from a practical point of view, provided that it needs to invest a lot of time in comparison with the precision increase that we obtain opposite the node and bars programs, which are much more faster in the structure modelling phase. In this thesis it has been approached, by finite element modelling, the resolution of a representative type cases of the connections commonly used in works of building, since are the beam-support connections, establishing the performance of these connections depending on the variables that commonly are present, which are: •Execution of beam-support connections welding only the web, or welding the beam to the support for the whole perimeter. •Disposition of stiffeners in the supports •Use 2UPN in box section or HEB section, which are the support types used in almost 100% building cases. To establish the influence of these variables in the connections performance, and the repercussion in the beams, a comparative analyse has been made with the resulting variables of the studied cases: •Stresses states in beams and connections. •Bending moments in beam ends. •Total and relative rotations in nodes. •Deflections in beams. Another aspect that the study allows us to analyze, is the valuation, from a costs point of view, of the execution of connections for the whole perimeter opposite to the web connections, or the execution of stiffeners. The results of this analyse, are strictly from an economic point of view, without prejudice that the safety or the preferences of the designers advise a certain solution. Finally, the third aspect that the study has allowed us to approach, is the comparison of the results that are obtained by the finite element model, nearer to the real behaviour, since the relative rotations in the connections are known, opposite to the results obtained with nodes and bars programs. So that, we can use the nodes and bars models, more versatile and quick, but knowing which are its limitations, and in which aspects and measures, we must weight the results. In the last part of the tesis, are relationated some of the topics on which it would be interesting to approach in later studies, with finite elements models, in order to know better the behaviour of the structural steel connections, in aspects that cannot be approached by the nodes and bars programs.