Visualising ribosome profiling and using it for reading frame detection and exploration of eukaryotic translation initiation

Ribosome profiling (ribo-seq) is a recently developed technique that provides genomewide information on protein synthesis (GWIPS) in vivo. The high resolution of ribo-seq is one of the exciting properties of this technique. In Chapter 2, I present a computational method that utilises the sub-codon precision and triplet periodicity of ribosome profiling data to detect transitions in the translated reading frame. Application of this method to ribosome profiling data generated for human HeLa cells allowed us to detect several human genes where the same genomic segment is translated in more than one reading frame. Since the initial publication of the ribosome profiling technique in 2009, there has been a proliferation of studies that have used the technique to explore various questions with respect to translation. A review of the many uses and adaptations of the technique is provided in Chapter 1. Indeed, owing to the increasing popularity of the technique and the growing number of published ribosome profiling datasets, we have developed GWIPS-viz (http://gwips.ucc.ie), a ribo-seq dedicated genome browser. Details on the development of the browser and its usage are provided in Chapter 3. One of the surprising findings of ribosome profiling of initiating ribosomes carried out in 3 independent studies, was the widespread use of non-AUG codons as translation initiation start sites in mammals. Although initiation at non-AUG codons in mammals has been documented for some time, the extent of non-AUG initiation reported by these ribo-seq studies was unexpected. In Chapter 4, I present an approach for estimating the strength of initiating codons based on the leaky scanning model of translation initiation. Application of this approach to ribo-seq data illustrates that initiation at non-AUG codons is inefficient compared to initiation at AUG codons. In addition, our approach provides a probability of initiation score for each start site that allows its strength of initiation to be evaluated.

The librarian is in: a consultation model for information literacy formative assessment

Formative assessment was introduced in Rehabilitation Therapy students’ information literacy programs in Fall Term 2006 in the course OT/PT 892: Evidence-Based Practice. It was subsequently employed in the Winter Term 2008 and again in the Spring Term 2008. Formative assessment during student/librarian face-to-face consultations was one of a variety of teaching techniques used in the program. Other techniques included: a required reading; an interactive hands-on searching session; and a summative assessment of the final revised search strategy assignment (these techniques varied somewhat over the 3 classes). With the 2008 entrance class, this course content moved to OT/PT 898: Critical Enquiry, largely in Module 3: Reviewing the Literature. One of the Critical Enquiry’s learning objectives is: “recognize and reflect on the complexity of gathering evidence to inform decision-making.”

Analysis of the reading and comprehension control in scientific texts in high school students

Students' learning process can be negatively affected when their reading and comprehension control is not appropriated. This research focuses on the analysis of how a group of students from high school evaluate their reading comprehension in manipulated scientific texts. An analysis tool was designed to determine the students' degree of comprehension control when reading a scientific short text with an added contradiction. The results have revealed that the students from 1st and 3rd ESO do not properly self-evaluated their reading comprehension. A different behavior has been observed in 1st Bachillerato, where appropriate evaluation and regulation seem to be more frequent. Moreover, no significant differences have been found regarding the type of text, year or gender. Finally, as identified by previous research, the correlations between the students' comprehension control and their school marks have shown to have a weak relationship and inversely proportional to the students' age.

Immune reactions to Bacteroides fragilis populations with three different types of capsule in a model of infection

The survival and growth of populations of the obligately anaerobic pathogenic bacterium Bacteroides fragilis enriched for large capsules (LCs), small capsules (SCs) or an electron-dense layer (EDL; non-capsulate by light microscopy) were examined in a mouse model of infection over a minimum period of 20 d. Chambers which allowed the influx of leukocytes, but not the efflux of bacteria, were implanted in the mouse peritoneal cavity. The LC and EDL populations consistently attained viable cell densities of the order of 10(8)-10(9) c.f.u. ml-1 within 24 h, whereas the SC population did not. However, after 3 d, all three bacterial populations maintained total viable numbers of 10(8)-10(9) c.f.u. ml-1 within the chambers. LC expression was selected against within 24 h in the model, the populations becoming non-capsulate by light microscopy, whereas in the SC population expression of the SC was retained by approximately 90% of the population. The EDL population remained non-capsulate by light microscopy throughout. Lymphocytes infiltrated the chambers to an equal extent for all three B. fragilis populations and at approximately 1000 times higher concentration than chambers which contained only quarter-strength Ringer's solution. The presence of neutrophils within the chambers did not cause a decrease in the total viable bacterial count. Each population elicited antibodies specific for outer-membrane proteins and polysaccharide, as detected by immunoblotting, which cross-reacted with the other populations. Differences were observed in the immunogenicity of the outer-membrane proteins within the three populations. Neutrophils were initially the predominant cell type in the chambers, but as the total leukocyte count increased with incubation time, neutrophils were outnumbered by other leukocytes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Peer tutoring in reading: The effects of role and organization on two dimensions of self-esteem

Background. Paired reading (PR) is an application of peer tutoring. It has been extensively researched, and its efficacy across a range of outcomes has been established. Benefits include improvements in key reading skills, and also in affective aspects of learning. Several studies have shown gains in self-esteem, although measurement methods have varied, and the model of self-esteem has rarely been clearly articulated.
Aims. To investigate the changes in self-esteem of children participating in a randomized trial of PR over a 15-week treatment period. To investigate the relative contribution of self-worth and self-competence to any gains in self-esteem. To investigate whether the pattern of change differs in children who take on different roles in the PR process.
Participants. The participants comprised a subset of a large-scale randomized trial of peer learning (The Fife Peer Learning Project). Four schools were randomly selected from schools allocated to the same-age PR condition, and four schools from those allocated to the cross-age PR condition. The same-age group consisted of 87 primary 6 children (10–11 years old). The cross-age group consisted of 81 primary 6 children. The controls, from schools randomly selected from a neighbouring authority, consisted of 92 primary 6 children.
Method. A pre–post design employing self-report measures of self-esteem. Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale was used, with scores analysed for worth and competence. The treatment period was 15 weeks, with the participants following a prescribed PR process.
Results. Significant pre–post gains were noted in self-esteem, driven predominantly by improved beliefs about competence, in both same-age and cross-age conditions, but not for controls. Gains were also seen in self-worth in the cross-age condition. Further analyses of the influence of organizational condition (same-age or cross-age) and role played (tutor vs. tutee) showed significant differences between same-age tutors and cross-age tutors in relation to self-worth. Effect sizes were generally small or moderate.
Conclusions. The findings provide further support for the belief that PR can enhance self-esteem. Importantly, the use of a two-dimensional model provides extra information about self-perceptions in PR contexts: first, the central role of self- competence; and second, the gains in self-worth which are associated with tutoring younger children (but not same-age peers). This new information has educational significance for schools considering the potential of peer tutoring and the benefits of different organizational conditions.

Simultaneously uncovering the patterns of brain regions involved in different story reading subprocesses

Story understanding involves many perceptual and cognitive subprocesses, from perceiving individual words, to parsing sentences, to understanding the relationships among the story characters. We present an integrated computational model of reading that incorporates these and additional subprocesses, simultaneously discovering their fMRI signatures. Our model predicts the fMRI activity associated with reading arbitrary text passages, well enough to distinguish which of two story segments is being read with 74% accuracy. This approach is the first to simultaneously track diverse reading subprocesses during complex story processing and predict the detailed neural representation of diverse story features, ranging from visual word properties to the mention of different story characters and different actions they perform. We construct brain representation maps that replicate many results from a wide range of classical studies that focus each on one aspect of language processing and offer new insights on which type of information is processed by different areas involved in language processing. Additionally, this approach is promising for studying individual differences: it can be used to create single subject maps that may potentially be used to measure reading comprehension and diagnose reading disorders.

Exploring the use of effective learning strategies to increase students' reading comprehension and test taking skills /

This study examined the effects of providing students with explicit instruction in how to use a repertoire of reading comprehension strategies and test taking skills when reading and responding to three types of questions (direct, inferential, critical). Specifically, the study examined whether providing students with a "model" of how to read and respond to the text and to the comprehension questions improved their reading comprehension relative to providing them with implicit instruction on reading comprehension strategies and test taking skills. Students' reading comprehension and test taking performance scores were compared as a function of instructional condition. Students from 2 grade 8 classes participated in this study. The reading component of the Canadian Achievement Tests, Third Edition (CAT/3) was used to identify students' level of reading comprehension prior to the formal instructional sessions. Students received either explicit instruction, which involved modelling, or implicit instruction, which consisted of review and discussion of the strategies to be used. Comprehension was measured through the administration of formative tests after each instructional session. The formative tests consisted of reading comprehension questions pertaining to a specific form of text (narrative, informational, graphic). In addition, students completed 3 summative tests and a delayed comprehension test which consisted of the alternative version of the CAT/3 standardized reading assessment. These data served as a posttest measure to determine whether students had shown an improvement in their reading comprehension skills as a result of the program delivery. There were significant differences in students' Canadian Achievement Test performance scores prior to the onset of the study. Students in the implicit group attained significantly higher comprehension scores than did students in the explicit group. The results from the program sessions indicated no significant differences in reading comprehension between the implicit and explicit conditions, with the exception of the 6th session involving the reading and interpreting of graphic text. Students in the explicit group performed significantly better when reading and interpreting graphic text than those in the implicit group. No significant differences were evident between the two study conditions across the three summative tests. Upon completion of the study, the results from the Canadian Achievement Test indicated no significant differences in performance between the two study conditions. The findings from this study reveal the effectiveness of providing students with explicit strategy instruction when reading and responding to various forms of text. Modelling the appropriate reading comprehension strategies and test taking skills enabled students to apply the same thought processes to their own independent work. This form of instruction enabled students in the explicit group to improve in their abilities to comprehend and respond to text and therefore should be incorporated as an effective form of classroom teaching.

The influence on children of the purpose of experiencing reading vocabulary: encoding-retrieval interactions in word perception

This research looked at conditions which result in the development of integrated letter code information in the acquisition of reading vocabulary. Thirty grade three children of normal reading ability acquired new reading words in a Meaning Assigned task and a Letter Comparison task, and worked to increase skill for known reading words in a Copy task. The children were then assessed on their ability to identify the letters in these words. During the test each stimulus word for each child was exposed for 100 msec., after which each child reported as many of his or her letters as he or she could. Familiar words, new words, and a single letter identification task served as within subject controls. Following this, subjects were assessed for word meaning recall of the Meaning Assigned words and word reading times for words in all condi tions • The resul ts supported an episodic model of word recognition in which the overlap between the processing operations employed in encoding a word and those required when decoding it affected decoding performance. In particular, the Meaning Assigned and Copy tasks. appeared to facilitate letter code accessibility and integration in new and familiar words respectively. Performance in the Letter Comparison task, on the other hand, suggested that subjects can process the elements of a new word without integrating them into its lexical structure. It was concluded that these results favour an episodic model of word recognition.

Show me, help me, let me : supporting teachers' changing conceptions of reading assessment and reading instruction

This qualitative inquiry used case study methodology to explore the change processes of 3 primary-grade teachers throughout their participation in 7 -month professional learning initiative focused on reading assessment and instruction. Participants took part in semimonthly inquiry-based professional learning community sessions, as well as concurrent individualized classroom-based literacy coaching. Each participant's experiences were first analyzed as a single case study, followed by cross-case analyses. While their patterns of professional growth differed, findings documented how all participants altered their understandings of the roles and relevancy of individual components of reading instruction (e.g., comprehension, decoding) and instructional approaches to scaffold students' growth (e.g., levelled text, strategy instruction), and experienced some form of conceptual change. Factors identified as affecting their change processes included; motivation, professional knowledge, professional beliefs (self-efficacy and theoretical orientation), resources (e.g., time, support), differentiated professional learning with associated goal-setting, and uncontrollable influences, with the affect of each factor compounded by interaction with the others. Comparison of participants' experiences to the Cognitive-Affective Model of Conceptual Change (CAMCC) and the Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth (IMTPG) demonstrated the applicability of using both conceptual models, with the IMTPG providing macrolevel insights over time and the CAMCC microlevel insights at each change intervaL Recommendations include the provision of differentiated teacher professional learning opportunities, as well as research documenting the effects of teacher mentorship programs and the professional growth of teacher educators. ii

Self-Regulated Learning and Children At-Risk for Learning Disabilities: Using Motivational Tactics to Support "Reading Rocks!"

This project explored self-regulation among children impacted by leaming disabilities. More specifically, this thesis examined whether a remedial literacy program called Reading Rocks! offered by the Leaming Disabilities Association of Niagara Region, provided participating children opportunities to set goals, develop strategies to meet these goals, and provide intemal and extemal feedback- all processes associated with a model of self-regulated leaming as pioneered by Butler and Winne (1995) and Winne and Hadwin (1999). In this thesis, I triangulate the data through the combination of three different methodologies. Firstly, I describe the various elements of the Reading Rocks! program. Secondly, I analyze the data gathered through three semi-structured interviews with three parents of children that participated in the Reading Rocks! program to demonstrate whether the program provides opportunities for children to self-regulate their learning. Thirdly, I also analyze photographic evidence of the motivational workstation boards created by the tutors and children to further illustrate how Reading Rocks! promotes self-regulatory processes among children.

Implementation of Response to Intervention (RtI) Model in Spain : An example of a collaboration between Canarian universities and the department of education of the Canary Islands

Resumen tomado de la publicaci??n

Cap a un model per interpretar i facilitar l'aprendre: estratègies i recursos per a la reflexió-acció en i des de la pràctica

1.- L'enquadrament d'aquest treball de recerca s'ha fet en i des de la praxis. EI que interessa és descobrir i proposar instruments pedagògics d'ajuda, assequibles i contextualitzats, especialment en el terreny de la comunicació i la interacció Educador-Educand. La metodologia que s'ha fet servir és de caire qualitatiu, etnogràfic, en un enfocament basat en la investigació-acció. La visió de la persona és volgudament holística; els sentiments, els significats, I' orientació personal, I' autodirecció. esdevenen elements centrals. La hipòtesi de treball, en la qual es fonamenta la recerca, podria formular-se així: 'En la pràctica, els Educadors, d'una forma més o menys reflexiva, perceben i interpreten el procés d'aprendre dels Educands; hi intervenen, el mediatitzen; n'avaluen la direcció i l'encert". A partir d'aquest supòsit, l'investigador veu convenient donar resposta a tres qüestions centrals: A) Com comprenem i interpretem els Educadors el procés d'aprendre dels Educands?; B) Quin tipus d'intervenció resultarà adient per promoure i/o facilitar l'aprendre?; C) Amb quins instruments i estratègies comptem per ajudar pedagògicament? 2.- Per llegir l'aprendre, l'investigador fa ús d'un model mental, indispensable per ordenar les dades de l'experiència. Convé, per tant, explicitar-lo, fer-ne ciència, coneixement compartit. En aquesta direcció de treball se li plantegen dos tipus d'interrogants: A) Quins són els elements comuns a qualsevol experiència d'aprenentatge?; Quina mena d'activitat o experiència personal desenvolupen tots els Educands; i B) Com es manifesta aquesta experiència? Amb quins indicadors? Quina mena de "text" llegeix l'Educador per orientar la seva intervenció d'ajuda? 3.- L'aprenentatge. en aquest treball, és considerat per l'investigador com la resultant de tres processos personals: el posicionament, l'estratègia i l'avaluació. Quan l'Educador vol compartir amb l'Educand el seu procés idiosincràtic d'aprendre, procura reconstruir amb ell aquestes tres accions bàsiques: A) Com es posiciona: què tem o desitja, què creu, què espera, quines expectatives viu, com es motiva? B) Quines són les seves pautes d'actuació: com treballa, com memoritza, com recupera la informació que té a la memòria, què fa davant d'un problema... ? C) Què busca; què és important per a ella; què pretén... ? 4.- Davant la complexitat dels missatges emesos per l'Educand l'investigador opta per llegir tres tipus de "textos": els productes i els resultats; les conductes; i els missatges parlats. Entre tots tres, pensa, podrà trobar elements i indicadors adequats per fonamentar, sempre hipotèticament, la seva actuació pedagògica. 5.- Procura sobretot detectar i fer existir els èxits, aquells productes i/o resultats que l'Educand troba valuosos, per tal d'ajudar-lo a prendre consciència dels seu repertori personal d'estratègies i capacitats. En aquest àmbit es proposen tres actituds o enfocaments del treball d'ajuda: A) El primer fa referència a la presa de consciència de l'estratègia personal, que s'amaga darrera el producte valorat. B) El segon apunta cap al respecte per l'estratègia que cadascú executa i, per tant, li és familiar. L'Educand la necessita. Es la seva. Es troba en la seva experiència, encara que no necessàriament existeixi en la seva construcció conscient. C) El tercer ,el duu a valorar l'estratègia d'acord amb les finalitats de l'Educand. La seva adequació es legitima pel que es proposa. Partim del supòsit que tota conducta es troba dirigida per un propòsit a vegades difícil de copsar i no sempre recomanable per a l'Educand. 6.- La conducta percebuda de l'Educand és entesa com un missatge, un conjunt d'indicadors de la seva activitat contextualitzada, interna i externa; missatge que, en relació amb altres, com els productes i les verbalitzacions, manifesta fragments dels seus significats, projectes, estratègies, valors. Es fa un èmfasi especial en les conductes "internes", els gestos mentals, l'acció interior, tramesa per mitja de microcomportaments sovint no conscient, i certificada per mitjà de la verbalització del viscut. 7.- Parlar amb l'Educand suposa dues menes d'accions: escoltar i emetre. Escoltem per comprendre; emetem per perfilar la comprensió i també per ajudar. En l'emissió, el missatge pedagògic té dues funcions: a) rellançar i orientar el pensament i l'autoexploració de l'Educand; i b) influir per tal que desenvolupi amb èxit el seu projecte d'aprendre. Interessa d'una manera especial ajudar a integrar en la consciència de l'Educand aquests elements de la seva experiència que poden facilitar-li l'adquisició del coneixement. I entenem que, en aquesta empresa, la paraula i la interacció verbal poden tenir-hi un joc important. Per aquesta raó s'ha considerat necessari oferir un model d'anàlisi de la interacció i els missatges verbals. 8.- "Les persones aprenen sempre, amb recursos, processos i sistemes de valoració idiosincràtics, per fa qual cosa la seva orientació en el context esdevé un referent central en el disseny de l'ajuda pedagògica i en la seva avaluació". Aquesta és la hipòtesi de sortida per dissenyar la intervenció pedagògica. Tothom aprèn, inevitablement; la qüestió és quina cosa està aprenent i de quina manera els seus resultats d'ara són mediatitzats per l'experiència passada i, alhora, condicionen el seu aprendre futur. L'aprenent es posiciona, anticipa el procés d' aprendre, valora la seva. capacitat per desenvolupar-lo amb èxit, es motiva en una determinada direcció, d'acord amb la seva experiència, els seus aprenentatges anteriors. Executa estratègies, mostra un tipus d'intel·ligència, una forma personal de processar la informació. Pretén quelcom. És un sistema obert en relació amb el medi: hi ha uns valors que dirigeixen la seva presa de decisions. Utilitza uns criteris propis, una gamma personal d'opcions conscients. Avalua el que fa, el resultat que obté i la seva capacitat personal. 9.- L'ajuda pedagògica que I' autor proposa s'encamina sobretot a facilitar en l'Educand la descoberta dels seus propis recursos. Es tracta de portar-lo cap a la consideració atenta de la seva pròpia experiència, per amplificar-la i fer-la existir com a recurs conscient . Ha dibuixat i experimentat tres conjunts d'intervenció cadascun enfocat vers un àmbit de l'experiència d'aprendre, el qual col·loca com a prioritari, sense oblidar qualsevol dels altres que pugui ser rellevant, per comprendre o ajudar. A) Intervenció sobre el posicionament. En aquest àmbit enfoca l'estil de motivació que executa l'Educand, mira de corregir-lo, si cal, a partir de l'anàlisi i la comprensió de les seves formes de motivar-se quan ell viu l'èxit. Treballa proposant objectius paradoxals de fracàs gairebé impossible, buscant l'assoliment de petits èxits, potser aparentment insignificants, però estratègics; prescriu l'automatisme, per modificar-lo si l'Educand ho desitja; comprova el procés d'anticipació de I' experiència que l'aprenent es construeix per orientar-se; l'ajuda a contextualitzar anticipació i a fer ús dels seus Ilenguatges interns més eficaços i còmodes;... B) Intervenció sobre les estratègies i processos. En un segon enfocament, no necessàriament posterior al descrit, considera les estratègies de I'Educand, també a partir dels seus encerts i èxits. Mira de portar-lo cap a fa descripció i presa de consciència de les seves maneres de fer mes còmodes i segures, les que lliguen amb les seves preferències cerebrals. Quan viu dificultats, el convida a explorar les excepcions, els moments en els quals les seves realitzacions són satisfactòries. Pretén sobretot modificar les seves creences limitants, posant-lo en conflicte amb els fets de l'experiència. A vegades, caldrà facilitar l'adquisició d'estratègies i procediments nous que l'Educand considera plausibles. Es tracta específicament de fer existir opcions noves d'actuació per tal d'assolir allò que vol i/o necessita. C) Intervenció sobre el sistema de valors de l'Educand. L'Educand viu uns valors, els quals expliquen el seu món intern les conductes que realitza i els resultats que obté. Aquest àmbit és col·locat, en el model, al centre del procés d'aprendre. Hom actua amb propòsits determinats, no necessariament conscients. L'obertura de la persona a l'experiència d'aprendre es dirigeix segons criteris i valors irrenunciables. 10.- L 'Educador procura compartir els objectius de l'Educand i els seus projectes per assolir-los; vol tanmateix que se'n faci coneixedor i director responsable. Per a això li convé preguntar-se per quina mena d'experiència està desenvolupant i quin sentit ecològic te per a ell. L'Educador, el seu model del món, la seva persona, està compromès en el procés d'ajuda. No és només un tècnic que aplica recursos objectius. El seu model de comunicació, el seu pensament, les seves expectatives i anticipacions, tenen un pes considerable en el tipus d'intervenció pedagògica que durà a terme i, d'escreix, en el tipus d' aprenentatge que facilita. En la intervenció, l'Educador parteix d'una avaluació intencionadament positiva, centrada en els recursos i les solucions, en la metacognició i l'autoregulació dels processos, a partir de premisses que pressuposen l'èxit personal.

The diabatic contour advective semi-Lagrangian model

This article describes a novel algorithmic development extending the contour advective semi-Lagrangian model to include nonconservative effects. The Lagrangian contour representation of finescale tracer fields, such as potential vorticity, allows for conservative, nondiffusive treatment of sharp gradients allowing very high numerical Reynolds numbers. It has been widely employed in accurate geostrophic turbulence and tracer advection simulations. In the present, diabatic version of the model the constraint of conservative dynamics is overcome by including a parallel Eulerian field that absorbs the nonconservative ( diabatic) tendencies. The diabatic buildup in this Eulerian field is limited through regular, controlled transfers of this field to the contour representation. This transfer is done with a fast newly developed contouring algorithm. This model has been implemented for several idealized geometries. In this paper a single-layer doubly periodic geometry is used to demonstrate the validity of the model. The present model converges faster than the analogous semi-Lagrangian models at increased resolutions. At the same nominal spatial resolution the new model is 40 times faster than the analogous semi-Lagrangian model. Results of an orographically forced idealized storm track show nontrivial dependency of storm-track statistics on resolution and on the numerical model employed. If this result is more generally applicable, this may have important consequences for future high-resolution climate modeling.

The counter-propagating Rossby-wave perspective on baroclinic instability. II: Application to the Charney model

The constant-density Charney model describes the simplest unstable basic state with a planetary-vorticity gradient, which is uniform and positive, and baroclinicity that is manifest as a negative contribution to the potential-vorticity (PV) gradient at the ground and positive vertical wind shear. Together, these ingredients satisfy the necessary conditions for baroclinic instability. In Part I it was shown how baroclinic growth on a general zonal basic state can be viewed as the interaction of pairs of ‘counter-propagating Rossby waves’ (CRWs) that can be constructed from a growing normal mode and its decaying complex conjugate. In this paper the normal-mode solutions for the Charney model are studied from the CRW perspective. Clear parallels can be drawn between the most unstable modes of the Charney model and the Eady model, in which the CRWs can be derived independently of the normal modes. However, the dispersion curves for the two models are very different; the Eady model has a short-wave cut-off, while the Charney model is unstable at short wavelengths. Beyond its maximum growth rate the Charney model has a neutral point at finite wavelength (r=1). Thereafter follows a succession of unstable branches, each with weaker growth than the last, separated by neutral points at integer r—the so-called ‘Green branches’. A separate branch of westward-propagating neutral modes also originates from each neutral point. By approximating the lower CRW as a Rossby edge wave and the upper CRW structure as a single PV peak with a spread proportional to the Rossby scale height, the main features of the ‘Charney branch’ (0model where the positive PV gradient exists only at the tropopause