Sintesi e caratterizzazione di oligo e politiofeni tioalchil sostituiti per applicazioni fotovoltaiche

Nell'ultimo decennio sono stati sviluppati numerosi materiali π-coniugati contenenti unità tiofeniche per applicazioni in dispositivi organici a film sottile. Nel campo delle celle solari, la possibilità di creare dispositivi basati sull’utilizzo di materiali organici, rispetto ai dispositivi attualmente in commercio a base di silicio, ha suscitato grande interesse soprattutto per la possibilità di realizzare dispositivi su larga area con basso costo di produzione e su substrati flessibili. Gli oligo- e i politiofeni sono eccellenti candidati grazie alle ottime proprietà di trasporto di carica e alle caratteristiche di assorbimento di luce. In celle solari di tipo Bulk-Heterojunction (BHJ), ad esempio, il poli(3-esiltiofene) è uno tra i materiali più studiati. Ad oggi, con il P3HT sono state raggiunte efficienze certificate superiori all’8%, variando sia parametri dipendenti dalla struttura molecolare, come ad esempio il peso molecolare, la regioregolarità delle catene alchiliche, il grado di polidispersità, il grado di polimerizzazione, sia parametri da cui dipende l’organizzazione della blend donatore-accettore. Per superare l’efficienza di conversione ottenuta con i polimeri classici come il P3HT è necessario progettare e sintetizzare materiali con precise caratteristiche: basso energy gap per aumentare l’assorbimento di luce, elevata mobilità di carica per avere una rapida estrazione delle cariche, posizione ottimale degli orbitali di frontiera per garantire una efficiente dissociazione dell’eccitone ed infine buona solubilità per migliorare la processabilità. Il presente lavoro di tesi si è articolato nei seguenti punti: sintesi di oligo- e politiofeni tioalchil sostituiti con inserzione di unità benzotiadiazolo per massimizzare l’assorbimento ed abbassare il gap energetico; studio dell’effetto della ramificazione del gruppo tioalchilico sull’organizzazione supramolecolare allo stato solido e successiva ottimizzazione della morfologia del film solido variando metodi di deposizione e solventi; applicazione degli oligomeri e dei polimeri sintetizzati come materiali donatori in celle fotovoltaiche di tipo Bulk-Heterojunction in presenza di fenil-C61-butirrato di metile (PCBM) come materiale accettore.

Sintesi e caratterizzazione di nuovi materiali politioalchiltiofenici per applicazioni in celle solari bulk-heterojunction

L’oggetto della presente tesi di laurea magistrale consiste nello studio di polimeri coniugati nella catena principale, per una loro applicazione come materiali fotoattivi in celle fotovoltaiche. In particolare, sono stati sintetizzati e caratterizzati politiofeni tioalchil sostituiti, funzionalizzati in posizione 3-3' con catene alchiliche di diversa lunghezza e grado di ramificazione (tra cui una chirale), al fine di studiarne l'effetto sulle proprietà ottiche ed elettriche del materiale. I polimeri ottenuti sono stati caratterizzati mediante tecniche spettroscopiche (1H-NMR, UV-PL), cromatografia a permeazione su gel (GPC), analisi termiche (DSC, TGA) e misure elettrochimiche (voltammetria ciclica). Il comportamento chiro-ottico del campione chirale è stato inoltre valutato tramite misure di dicroismo circolare. Si è infine testata l’efficienza delle celle fotovoltaiche ottenute utilizzando i polimeri sintetizzati come materiale fotoattivo.

The syntheses and characterization of nickel complexes; investigation of Ni(dppp)2 and [NiX(dppp)n]x, potentially catalytically active nickel(0)/(I) species for cross-coupling reactions

This thesis describes an investigation in which we compare Ni(0), Ni(I) and Ni(II) complexes containing 1,3-bis(diphenylphosphino)propane (dppp) as a phosphine ligand for their abilities to effect three types of cross-coupling reactions: Buchwald-Hartwig Amination, Heck-Mizoroki, and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions with different types of substrates. The Ni(0) complex Ni(dppp)2 is known and we have synthesized it via a new procedure involving zinc reduction of the known NiCl2(dppp) in the presence of an excess of dppp. The Ni(0) complex was characterized by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. Since Ni(I) complexes of dppp seem unknown, we have synthesized what at this stage appear to be NiXdpppn/[NiX(dppp)n]x (X = Cl, Br, I; n = 1,2, x = 1, 2) by comproportionation of molar equivalents of Ni(dppp)2 and NiX2dppp, X= Cl, Br, I.

Synthesis and Properties of a Series of 1,1,n,n-Tetramethyl[n](2,11)teropyrenophanes

The work described in this thesis revolves around the 1,1,n,ntetramethyl[n](2,11)teropyrenophanes, which are a series of [n]cyclophanes with a severely bent, board-shaped polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The thesis is divided into seven Chapters. The first Chapter conatins an overview of the seminal work on [n]cyclophanes of the first two members of the “capped rylene” series of PAHs: benzene and pyrene. Three different general strategies for the synthesis of [n]cyclophanes are discussed and this leads in to a discussion of some slected syntheses of [n]paracyclopahnes and [n](2,7)pyrenophanes. The chemical, structural, spectroscopic and photophysical properties of these benzene and pyrene-derived cyclophanes are discussed with emphasis on the changes that occur with changes in the structure of the aromatic system. Chapter 1 concludes with a brief introduction to [n]cyclophanes of the fourth member of the capped rylene series of PAHs: teropyrene. The focus of the work described in Chapter 2 is the synthesis of of 1,1,n,ntetramethyl[n](2,11)teropyrenophane (n = 6 and 7) using a double-McMurry strategy. While the synthesis 1,1,7,7-tetramethyl[7](2,11)teropyrenophane was successful, the synthesis of the lower homologue 1,1,6,6-tetramethyl[6](2,11)teropyrenophane was not. The conformational behaviour of [n.2]pyrenophanes was also studied by 1H NMR spectroscopy and this provided a conformation-based rationale for the failure of the synthesis of 1,1,6,6-tetramethyl[6](2,11)teropyrenophane. Chapter 3 contains details of the synthesis of 1,1,n,n-tetramethyl[n](2,11)teropyrenophanes (n = 7-9) using a Wurtz / McMurry strategy, which proved to be more general than the double McMurry strategy. The three teropyrenophanes were obtained in ca. 10 milligram quantities. Trends in the spectroscopic properties that accompany changes in the structure of the teropyrene system are discussed. A violation of Kasha’s rule was observed when the teropyrenophanes were irradiated at 260 nm. The work described in the fourth Chapter concentrates on the development of gram-scale syntheses of 1,1,n,n-tetramethyl[n](2,11)teropyrenophanes (n = 7–10) using the Wurtz / McMurry strategy. Several major modifications to the orginal synthetic pathway had to be made to enable the first several steps to be performed comfortably on tens of grams of material. Solubility problems severely limited the amount of material that could be produced at a late stage of the synthetic pathways leading to the evennumbered members of the series (n = 8, 10). Ultimately, only 1,1,9,9- tetramethyl[9](2,11)teropyrenophane was synthesized on a multi-gram scale. In the final step in the synthesis, a valence isomerization / dehydrogenation (VID) reaction, the teropyrenophane was observed to become unstable under the conditions of its formation at n = 8. The synthesis of 1,1,10,10-tetramethyl[10](2,11)teropyrenophane was achieved for the first time, but only on a few hundred milligram scale. In Chapter 5, the results of an investigation of the electrophilic aromatic bromination of the 1,1,n,n-tetramethyl[n](2,11)teropyrenophanes (n = 7–10) are presented. Being the most abundant cyclophane, most of the work was performed on 1,1,9,9-tetramethyl[9](2,11)teropyrenophane. Reaction of this compound with varying amounts of of bromine revealed that bromination occurs most rapidly at the symmetryrelated 4, 9, 13 and 18 positions (teropyrene numbering) and that the 4,9,13,18- tetrabromide could be formed exclusively. Subsequent bromination occurs selectively on the symmetry-related 6, 7, 15 and 16 positions (teropyrene numbering), but considerably more slowly. Only mixtures of penta-, hexa-, hepta and octabromides could be formed. Bromination reactions of the higher and lower homologues (n = 7, 8 and 10) revealed that the reactivity of the teropyrene system increased with the degree of bend. Crystal structures of some tetra-, hexa-, hepta- and octa-brominated products were obtained. The goal of the work described in Chapter 6 is to use 1,1,9,9- tetramethyl[9](2,11)teropyrenophane as a starting material for the synthesis of warped nanographenophanes. A bromination, Suzuki-Miyaura, cyclodehydrogenation sequence was unsuccessful, as was a C–H arylation / cyclodehydrogenation approach. Itami’s recently-developed K-region-selective annulative -extension (APEX) reaction proved to be successful, affording a giant [n]cyclophane with a C84 PAH. Attempted bay-region Diels-Alder reactions and some cursory host-guest chemistry of teropyrenophanes are also discussed. In Chapter 7 a synthetic approach toward a planar model compound, 2,11-di-tbutylteropyrene, is described. The synthesis could not be completed owing to solubility problems at the end of the synthetic pathway.

The syntheses and characterization of nickel complexes; investigation of Ni(dppp)2 and [NiX(dppp)n]x, potentially catalytically active nickel(0)/(I) species for cross-coupling reactions

This thesis describes an investigation in which we compare Ni(0), Ni(I) and Ni(II) complexes containing 1,3-bis(diphenylphosphino)propane (dppp) as a phosphine ligand for their abilities to effect three types of cross-coupling reactions: Buchwald-Hartwig Amination, Heck-Mizoroki, and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions with different types of substrates. The Ni(0) complex Ni(dppp)2 is known and we have synthesized it via a new procedure involving zinc reduction of the known NiCl2(dppp) in the presence of an excess of dppp. The Ni(0) complex was characterized by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. Since Ni(I) complexes of dppp seem unknown, we have synthesized what at this stage appear to be NiXdpppn/[NiX(dppp)n]x (X = Cl, Br, I; n = 1,2, x = 1, 2) by comproportionation of molar equivalents of Ni(dppp)2 and NiX2dppp, X= Cl, Br, I.

Catalytic reactions with palladium supported on mesocellular foam : Applications in hydrogenation, isomerization, and C-C bond forming reactions

The major part of this thesis concerns the development of catalytic methodologies based on palladium nanoparticles immobilized on aminopropyl-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam (Pd0-AmP-MCF). The catalytic activity of the precursor to the nanocatalyst, PdII-AmP-MCF is also covered by this work. In the first part the application of Pd0-AmP-MCF in Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions and transfer hydrogenation of alkenes under microwave irradiation is described. Excellent reactivity was observed and a broad range of substrates were tolerated for both transformations. The Pd0-AmP-MCF exhibited high recyclability as well as low metal leaching in both cases. The aim of the second part was to evaluate the catalytic efficiency of the closely related PdII-AmP-MCF for cycloisomerization of various acetylenic acids. The catalyst was able to promote formation of lactones under mild conditions using catalyst loadings of 0.3 - 0.5 mol% at temperatures of up to 50 oC in the presence of Et3N. By adding 1,4-benzoquinone to the reaction, the catalyst could be recycled four times without any observable decrease in the activity. The selective arylation of indoles at the C-2 position using Pd-AmP-MCF and symmetric diaryliodonium salts is presented in the third part. These studies revealed that Pd0-AmP-MCF was more effective than PdII-AmP-MCF for this transformation. Variously substituted indoles as well as diaryliodonium salts were tolerated, giving arylated indoles in high yields within 15 h at 20 - 50 oC in H2O. Only very small amounts of Pd leaching were observed and in this case the catalyst exhibited moderate recyclability. The final part of the thesis describes the selective hydrogenation of the C=C in different α,β-unsaturated systems. The double bond was efficiently hydrogenated in high yields both under batch and continuous-flow conditions. High recyclability and low metal leaching were observed in both cases.

Sequential alcohol oxidation/putative homo Claisen-Tishchenko-type reaction to give esters: a key process in accessing novel biologically active lactone macrocycles

We report an efficient methodology for the direct oxidative esterification of primary alcohols to diether-esters using pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC). Numerous studies were carried out to probe the reaction mechanism and at the same time optimize the reaction conditions. The reaction could be conducted with 1 equivalent of PCC and 1 equivalent of BF3 center dot OEt2. Indications based on literature precedent were that the reaction may proceed via a sequential alcohol oxidation to the aldehyde followed by a putative Cr or boron catalyzed Claisen-Tishchenko-type reaction. Using this efficient methodology, we synthesized a family of novel diether-esters in very good yields; some of these molecules were subsequently tested against both acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). In addition, we also disclose a new synthetic strategy for the synthesis of lactam macrocycles with potential biological activity. This methodology included the regioselective borylation of the ester substrate and a subsequent Suzuki-Miyaura coupling to obtain the desired lactam macrocycle.

Sintesi e caratterizzazione di eptameri a base tiofenica con sequenza D-A1-D-A-D-A1-D per applicazioni in BHJ solar cells

L’interesse della ricerca scientifica sta crescendo sempre più tra i materiali a base tiofenica, spinta dalle loro sorprendenti proprietà funzionali e semiconduttive. Gli oligotiofeni trovano infatti applicazione in molti campi interdisciplinari, in particolare nei dispositivi fotovoltaici organici. In questo studio è stato sintetizzato un nuovo eptamero T7-Bz-TSO2 con sequenza D-A1-D-A-D-A1-D grazie alla reazione di cross-coupling Suzuki-Miyaura catalizzata da un complesso di palladio e assistita da microonde. Questo lavoro si è incentrato sull’introduzione di una nuova unità tiofenica S,S-diossidata lungo la catena oligomerica principale e sullo studio delle diverse proprietà ottiche ed elettrochimiche del nuovo materiale, utilizzato come strato fotattivo in una cella solare organica di tipo bulk heterojunction (BHJ). Lo studio dei parametri di cella ha rivelato una promettente natura ambipolare del T7-Bz-TSO2, non comune in questa classe di composti e di grande interesse per lo sviluppo di dispositivi fotovoltaici organici.

Green approach to Palladium Cross-Coupling reactions and development of new methodologies based on highly abundant metals

Transition metal catalyzed cross-coupling reactions represent among the most versatile and useful tools in organic synthesis for the carbon-carbon (C-C) bond formation and have a prominent role in both the academic and pharmaceutical segments. Among them, palladium catalyzed cross-coupling reactions are currently the most versatile. In this thesis, the applications, impact and development of green palladium cross-coupling reactions are discussed. Specifically, we discuss the translation of the Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry and their applications in pharmaceutical organometallic chemistry to stimulate the development of cost-effective and sustainable catalytic processes for the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API). The Heck-Cassar-Sonogashira (HCS) and the Suzuki-Miyaura (SM) protocols, using HEP/H2O as green mixture and sulfonated phosphine ligands, allowed to recycle and recover the catalyst, always guaranteeing high yields and fast conversion under mild conditions, with aryl iodides, bromides, triflates and chlorides. No catalyst leakage or metal contamination of the final product were observed during the HCS and SM reactions, respecting the very low limits for metal impurities in medicines established by the International Conference of Harmonization Guidelines Q3D (ICH Q3D). In addition, a deep understanding of the reaction mechanism is very important if the final target is to develop efficient protocols that can be applied at industrial level. Experimental and theoretical studies pointed out the presence of two catalytic cycles depending on the counterion, shedding light on the role of base in catalyst reduction and acetylene coordination in the HCS coupling. Finally, the development of a cross-coupling reaction to form aryldifluoronitriles in the presence of copper is discussed, highlighting the importance of inserting fluorine atoms within biological structures and the use of readily available metals such as copper as an alternative to palladium.

Estudio comparativo de una reacción sorologica para el diagnostico de la toxoplasmose

Se estudiaron 73 sueros humanos mediante la RSF y la reacción de floculación, encontrándose una buena correlación de los resultados, por lo que se considera que esta última es útil especialmente para fines de detección, considerando su sencillez y bajo costo.

Avaliação da sensibilidade da técnica de eclosão de miracídios, de Suzuki, em comparação com outros processos empregados no diagnóstico da esquistossomose mansônica

Para simplificar o diagnóstico da esquistossomose mansônica há interesse de utilizar exame das fezes executado com base na eclosão de miracidios. Foi analisada a sensibilidade do método idealizado por Suzuki, através de comparação com os processos de Kato-Katz, Hoffman, Pons e Janer (sedimentação espontânea em água) e Chieffi e cols. Ficou comprovado que a tática em apreço é útil, mas não suplanta os méritos das outras empregadas, apresentando todavia melhor resultado quando presentes nas fezes maiores quantidades de ovos.

Interacciones moleculares débiles en medios homogéneos y heterogéneos: Implicancias en mecanismos de reacción. Aplicaciones analíticas y en síntesis orgánica

Se realiza un estudio sistemático de interacciones moleculares en particular específicas, como puente de hidrógeno y electrón-donor-aceptor (EDA). Se estudian en principio moléculas sencillas (modelos), para luego aplicar los resultados a sistemas complejos de interés biológico y macromoléculas de interés analítico y tecnológico. Se busca detectar y cuantificar interacciones no-específicas. El efecto de estas interacciones se estudia tanto en medio homogéneo como en sistemas organizados: micelas y microemulsiones. Interesa establecer la influencia que ejerce el medio micelar sobre las distintas interacciones y la localización de los solutos en el sistema. Se estudiarán preferentemente micelas inversas. Esto permite no sólo conocer la influencia del medio organizado en las propiedades espectroscópicas y catalíticas del soluto sino también las propiedades de estos medios tan peculiares que en muchos aspectos mimetizan los naturales. Además interesa sensar la polaridad en el microentorno micelar a través del estudio espectroscópico con moléculas prueba. Estos estudios se extienden a la elucidación de mecanismos de reacción donde los complejos EDA se postulan como intermediarios. En particular interesan reacciones de sustitución nucleofílica aromática en solventes apróticos y con agregado de surfactantes. También se estudian las implicancias cinéticas del uso de catálisis por transferencia orgánica para optimizar rendimientos. Por otro, se estudian los aspectos mecanísticos de reacciones de sustitución nucleofílica aromática que involucran sustratos aromáticos activados por complejación con metales de transición y sus posibles aplicaciones en síntesis.

Nutrição mineral de plantas ornamentais: VII - absorção e deficiências de nutrientes pelo Chrysanthemum morifolium L., cv, 'Suzuki'

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar aspectos da nutrição mineral de Crisântemo, cultivar Suzuki, no que concerne: - ao efeito da omissão e presença de P, K, Ca, Mg e S, no crescimento das plantas; às quantidades de P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe, Mn e Zn extraídos em várias fases de seu desenvolvimento. Mudas de crisântemo foram transplantadas para vaso contendo sílica. Foram submetidas a tratamentos, que constaram do cultivo de plantas em solução nutritiva completa e omitindo um macronutriente por vez. Também foram cultivadas em condições de campo, coletando-se amostras de plantas periodicamente. Obtidos materiais de ambos os ensaios, processaram-se as análises químicas. São discutidos os sintomas de deficiência e apresentados os teores em cada órgão de plantas normais e carentes em cada elemento. Uma planta de crisântemo extrai: 231,24 mg de P; 1600,10 mg de K; 269,32 mg de Ca; 112,77 mg de Mg; 90,95 mg de S; 0,799 mg de Cu; 116,45 mg de Fe; 23,35 mg de Mn; 14,42 mg de Zn.