独花兰和扇脉杓兰的传粉生态学

兰科植物精巧的花部结构及其独特的传粉机制为自然选择理论和异花受粉优势学说提供了强有力的证据。开展兰科植物的传粉生态学研究对进一步探讨植物进化中的一些关键问题（如生殖隔离、物种形成、适应和繁育系统进化等）具有重要意义。本文通过对独花兰 (Changnienia amoena) 和扇脉杓兰 (Cypripedium japonicum) 两种兰科植物进行植物与传粉者之间关系、种内形态变异、花粉散布等方面的研究，探讨其适应进化方式、传粉系统的进化趋势，同时为开发适用的分子标记，在独花兰中初步摸索和探讨了微卫星标记的分离。主要研究结果如下： 1. 濒危植物独花兰的传粉生态学 在神农架2个地点进行了连续2年的野外观测和实验。结果表明，独花兰是一种自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。在2个地点独花兰的传粉者种类不同，在龙门河三条熊蜂 (Bombus (Diversobombus) trifasciatus) 是主要传粉者，在关门山仿熊蜂 (B. (Tricornibombus) imitator) 是唯一的传粉者。尽管它们出现的丰度和觅食行为不同，但其传粉行为和携粉部位非常相同，因此，可以看作是一个功能群（functional group）。从种群水平上看，开花个体的分布式样不是显著的偏斜曲线图，传粉者的有效访问主要集中在开花的前、中期。由于没有花蜜，传粉者在花内停留的时间很短，花粉块输出和传粉发生在熊蜂劳而无获的访问、退出花时。自然条件下，独花兰的结实率很低，只有6%-12%，并呈现明显的年份和地点变化。传粉者限制是结实率低的主要原因。与同亚族近缘种布袋兰相比，分布于中国中部的独花兰受冰期的影响很小，其传粉环境相对稳定，在进化历史中，形成了一种稳定的传粉系统。本研究结果纠正了前人对独花兰繁殖方式的错误认识，并为其保护策略的制订提供了重要资料。 2. 独花兰种群大小、传粉者访问和花粉流 为了检验独花兰种群大小、空间格局与传粉者访问之间的关系，连续2年对10个独花兰种群的花粉块输出和输入进行了统计分析，同时对花粉块进行标记研究其散布式样。结果显示，花粉块输出比例与种群大小之间关系在2003年呈显著负相关，但在2004年这种负相关关系不显著。尽管独花兰的空间分布格局在不同种群不同，但传粉者的访问除了在有蜂巢的种群为聚集式访问外，其余种群内均为随机访问式样。花粉块的散布式样呈尖峰态分布，多数花粉块散布很短的距离，少数散布较远。花粉块的平均散布距离在龙门河为7.3 m，在关门山为10.6 m。由于各种群之间相隔很远，种群之间花粉块交流受到限制，很少有种群外的花粉块输入。花粉块传递只在种群内近缘个体中进行，有可能导致种内遗传或形态分化。 3. 独花兰种内形态变异及其适应意义 对庐山、新宁和神农架3个地点15个独花兰自然种群的形态变异进行了研究，探讨了形态多样性水平和地理变异式样及其可能的适应机制。结果表明，在物种水平上独花兰形态性状存在丰富的变异。单因素方差分析显示3个地区间多个形态性状存在极显著差异（P<0.01），UPGMA聚类分析也表明这3个地区分别形成明显不同的分支，说明3个地区种群植物形态已经出现分化。在神农架地区，龙门河和关门山两个地点间出现明显的形态分化，而这两个地点的传粉者在形体大小表现出显著差异。适合度与形态性状之间的相关性分析显示，独花兰种内形态分化是以传粉者为媒介的自然选择作用的结果。移栽实验显示，本地传粉者对本地和移栽种群花的访问表现出一定的选择性。 4. 扇脉杓兰的传粉生态学研究 与独花兰同域分布、花期不遇的扇脉杓兰是杓兰属的一个特殊类群，具有典型“Japonicum”型唇瓣类型。对神农架6个种群连续两年野外观测和实验结果表明，扇脉杓兰是一种自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。在种群水平上开花个体的分布式样呈显著的偏斜曲线图，在短时间内迅速到达盛花期。扇脉杓兰的传粉者是三种熊蜂，其访问频次很低，访问时间很短，有效访问主要集中在开花的前、中期。自然结实率只有4.3％－8.5％，人工授粉实验证明，传粉者限制是结实率低的主要原因，且传粉者限制程度在花期不同阶段和不同地点存在差异。对欺骗性植物聚集生长、开花有利于吸引传粉者这一假说进行检验，结果显示，克隆群丛大小与传粉者有效访问（花粉块输出比例）呈弱负相关关系。聚集生长的结实率与分散生长的没有显著差异，说明繁殖成功与开花个体的密度无关。扇脉杓兰的花粉集结为未蜡质化的花粉块，是杓兰属中粘质花粉和蜡质花粉块的中间进化类型。传粉生态学和形态学证据显示C. acaule和扇脉杓兰是东亚-北美间断分布的姐妹种对。 5. 独花兰微卫星位点的分离 为了深入研究独花兰种群的基因流和交配系统，用Dynabeads和选择性杂交法分离微卫星位点、筛选引物。首先将基因组DNA用合适的内切酶消化为400-1000 bp大小的片段，然后用生物素标记的简单重复寡核苷酸序列做探针与其杂交，杂交复合物用抗生链霉素蛋白包裹的磁珠吸附，经过一系列洗脱、沉淀，得到富含重复片段的DNA，然后在进行克隆、测序，利用SSR两侧翼区设计引物，经过多态性分析可得到微卫星标记。结果显示，35个克隆序列中18个（51.4％）含有重复片段（SSRs），说明用Dynabeads富集效率明显高于传统方法。到目前为止所得引物共4对。这一实验方法的探索为以后分离杓兰属等兰科植物微卫星位点、进而进行群体遗传学研究奠定了一定的基础。

蚂蚁参与的传粉系统——基于鸟巢兰属和对叶兰属三种兰科植物的传粉生物学研究

蚂蚁和被子植物之间存在广泛、普遍和多样的关系，但蚂蚁为被子植物传粉的报道却很少。本文通过对分布于四川省黄龙寺自然保护区黄龙沟内鸟巢兰属和对叶兰属的三种花结构十分相似的植物(高山鸟巢兰Neottia listeroides、小叶对叶兰Listera smithii以及花叶对叶兰L. puberula var. maculata)的传粉生态学研究，首次在国内报道高山鸟巢兰和花叶对叶兰中蚂蚁参与的传粉现象，并探讨了蚂蚁参与的传粉系统中蚂蚁传粉的特点、传粉效率、蚂蚁活动特点与防止自花授粉的关系、以及蚂蚁传粉的作用等问题。同时通过蚂蚁参与传粉的高山鸟巢兰和花叶对叶兰以及没有蚂蚁参与传粉的小叶对叶兰的生境对比，初步分析了蚂蚁参与传粉的生境条件。 黄龙沟内小叶对叶兰、高山鸟巢兰和花叶对叶兰居群水平的花期分别可持续27 d、40 d和50 d，大量开花期(～60%)分别在6月下旬到7月上旬、7月中下旬和8月。这3种植物都具暴露的花蜜，花蜜位于唇瓣中央不明显蜜槽内，花蜜量很小。访问小叶对叶兰的昆虫非常少，2005年和2007年均没有观察到传粉者。在2005年，姬蜂和瘿蜂为花叶对叶兰主要传粉者。在2007年，蚂蚁(包括细胸蚁和立毛蚁)分别是高山鸟巢兰和花叶对叶兰最主要的传粉者，其单花访问次数、携粉次数以及授粉次数分别在这2种植物的所有访问昆虫中是最高的。蚂蚁沿唇瓣蜜槽取食花蜜，到达唇瓣基部后，在高山鸟巢兰上，一般情况下蚂蚁头部不能接触到蕊喙先端，只有当蚂蚁头部向上抬起，才能触碰到蕊喙，花粉团通过蕊喙先端释放的粘滴粘在蚂蚁头部最顶端;而在花叶对叶兰上，只要蚂蚁在唇瓣基部活动就可以触碰到蕊喙，花粉团粘在蚂蚁头部的前额处。当小叶对叶兰、高山鸟巢兰和花叶对叶兰的蕊喙先端被触碰后，立即向下运动盖住柱头，分别约9 h、21 h和23 h重新抬起至药帽位置。蕊喙的这种运动可以避免因蚂蚁的重复访问而引起自花授粉的发生。繁育系统实验表明，这3种植物是自交亲和的，但必须依靠昆虫进行传粉。自然条件下，小叶对叶兰的自然结实率在2005和2007年分别为18.03%和14.42%，花叶对叶兰在2005和2007年分别为17.05%和43.20%，高山鸟巢兰在2007年为19.77%。 细胸蚁和立毛蚁在高山鸟巢兰和花叶对叶兰上的访问频率差异不大，前者略低于后者，但高山鸟巢兰的结实率却远低于花叶对叶兰。这主要是由于高山鸟巢兰与细胸蚁和立毛蚁之间形态上的不完全适应，而花叶对叶兰与2种蚂蚁之间形态上却较为适应的缘故。虽然2007年2种蚂蚁是高山鸟巢兰和花叶对叶兰最有效的传粉者，但这种传粉关系可能只是在特定时间和独特生态环境中出现的。生境干旱可能是导致蚂蚁访花和传粉的重要因素。我们的研究结果也初步表明当环境变化导致原有的主要传粉者缺失时，蚂蚁可以起到补充传粉的作用。

中国兜兰属植物的传粉生态学研究

兰科植物多样化的花部性状和复杂的传粉系统为我们研究传粉者与花部性状关系提供了材料，兰科植物的多样性被认为是适应于多样化特化传粉者的结果。对同属不同形态的兰科植物进行传粉生态学观察，对于了解花部性状与传粉系统的关系，理解传粉者在花部进化中的作用具有重要意义。兜兰属植物是兰科植物中比较独特的类群，全世界约有69种，该属植物的花部性状（唇瓣形状、花部颜色）存在很大的差异。本文通过对我国4种具有不同花部性状的兜兰进行传粉生物学研究，探讨该属植物传粉机制与花部形状的关系和适应性进化等问题。 1.硬叶兜兰的传粉生物学 在贵州省东北部对硬叶兜兰传粉进行了连续4年的野外观察和实验，结果表明，硬叶兜兰是由蜂类传粉的，其中黄熊蜂是主要传粉者;硬叶兜兰不产生气味，主要依靠颜色来吸引传粉者。虽然传粉者主要为蜂类，但硬叶兜兰花还吸引了大量食蚜蝇访问者，并且蜂类和食蚜蝇在花上具有相似的行为。所以，硬叶兜兰的花信号是吸引“访问昆虫”，并不是专性吸引“传粉昆虫”的。虽然食蚜蝇类访问者也可以进入硬叶兜兰的传粉通道，但是硬叶兜兰传粉通道的大小决定了熊蜂为其主要传粉者，而频繁访花的食蚜蝇由于体形过小不能为硬叶兜兰传粉。 2.小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的传粉生物学 对小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的传粉生物学研究，证实了依据传粉综合征概念所作出的推测。小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰都是由食蚜蝇传粉的，两种兜兰在观察地点的主要传粉者均为黑带食蚜蝇;并且它们都是依靠欺骗食蚜蝇传粉的。通过气味分析，我们发现小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰都不产生气味，它们都是依靠颜色来欺骗传粉者的。但两种兜兰的欺骗机制存在差异，并且这种差异与花部颜色特征的不同相关。小叶兜兰黄色退化雄蕊的反射光谱符合觅食中的食蚜蝇对颜色的偏好，能有效的诱骗食蚜蝇传粉;长瓣兜兰则是利用花瓣基部的黑色突起和睫状毛模拟繁殖地（蚜虫）来欺骗雌性食蚜蝇。根据本实验结果，我们认为传粉综合征只是对应于不同的传粉选择压力而不是简单对应于传粉者种类，利用传粉综合征预测时还需要考虑生境和演化历史等因素对花部形态的影响，这样才可能得到有效的结果。 3. 带叶兜兰传粉生物学 在广西雅长自然保护区对带叶兜兰传粉进行了连续2年的野外观察。结果表明，带叶兜兰是自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。紫纹异巴食蚜蝇是观察地点唯一的传粉者。虽然小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的主要传粉者——黑带食蚜蝇也会访问带叶兜兰，但因为胸高较大不能通过传粉通道，常常被卡死在带叶兜兰的传粉通道中。通过对比小叶兜兰、长瓣兜兰和带叶兜兰的传粉通道大小，以及相应的传粉者的大小，我们发现带叶兜兰具有比其它两种兜兰小的传粉通道，同时，带叶兜兰主要传粉者的胸高也比其它两种兜兰主要传粉者的胸高小。带叶兜兰的传粉通道可以起到限制传粉者种类的作用。此外，带叶兜兰可能是通过模拟食蚜蝇的繁殖地来吸引传粉者的。 4.兜兰属传粉系统的转变 综合已有的关于兜兰属传粉机制的报道以及本文的观察结果，并结合分子系统学证据。我们做出如下推测，兜兰属中存在由蜂类传粉向蝇类传粉转变的趋势，并且这种转变是由兜兰属植物花颜色对昆虫的吸引以及花结构（传粉通道大小）对访问昆虫选择的共同作用结果。兜兰属中较为原始的种类（如硬叶兜兰）可以同时吸引蜂类和蝇类访问者;通过花各部分性状的转变，特别是假雄蕊在颜色上的特化（反射光谱变化范围），或花萼和花瓣的黑色突起和睫状毛附属物对繁殖地（蚜虫）的模拟，处于较进化地位的兜兰属种类则专性吸引食蚜蝇。同样地，兜兰属中较为原始的种类具有较大的传粉通道，从而限制了蝇类访问者作为传粉者，但允许体形较大熊蜂类访问者成为有效传粉者;随着传粉通道的变小，兜兰属植物则仅允许体形较小的食蚜蝇成为有效传粉者。传粉通道越小，有效传粉者的选择余地就越窄。

海南野生兰科植物保育生物学研究

兰科(Orchidaceae)是高等植物中第二大科，包括石斛属在内的许多种类均具有较高的观赏价值和独特的药用价值。过度采挖和商业利用及原生境丧失致使野生兰科植物资源受到了毁灭性的破坏，许多兰科植物种类日趋濒危。本研究以海南岛野生兰科植物为对象，从生物多样性、群落生态学、菌根体系的建立和重引入实施工程等方面开展工作，研究结果如下： 1）报道了中国兰科植物2个新种，1个中国新记录属，6个中国新记录种及11个海南新记录种。其中，2个新种为长筒天麻Gastrodia longitubularis和芳香白点兰Thrixspermum odoratum；1个中国新记录属为小囊兰属Micropera；6个中国新记录种，分别为疏花羊耳蒜Liparis sparsiflora、三色槌柱兰Malleola insectifera.、红花小囊兰Micropera poilanei、美丽云叶兰Nephelaphyllum pulchrum、腐生齿唇兰Odontochilus saprophyticu和白花曲唇兰Panisea albiflora；11个海南新记录种，分别为密花石豆兰Bulbophyllum odoratissimum、金唇兰Chrysoglossum ornatum、勐海隔距兰Cleisostoma menghaiense、束花石斛Dendrobium chrysanthum、无叶美冠兰Eulophia zollingeri、滇南翻唇兰Hetaeria rubens、心叶球柄兰Mischobulbum cordifolium、毛叶芋兰Nerviliaplicata、平卧曲唇兰Panisea cavalerei、云南曲唇兰Panisea yunnanensisi及台湾白点兰Thrixspermum formosanum。 2）海南琼北火山岩地区调查结果表明，该区有兰科植物10属14种，成斑块状分布；其区系成分单一，生活型不全面；附主植物种类多样，人工种植的经济作物为该地区兰科植物的主要附生宿主。生境特征分析结果显示，琼北火山岩地区独特的地质气候条件及植被类型是影响该地区兰科植物种类数量的主要因素。人工干扰所致的植被破坏、生境破碎化是该地区兰科植物多样性丧失的主导因素。 3）以我国兰科海南特有种-华石斛（Dendrobium sinense TangetWang）为研究对象，采用双向指示种分析法（TWINSPAN）和除趋势对应分析法（DCA）对海南霸王岭国家级自然保护区华石斛附生群落进行了分类和排序。结果表明：TWINSPAN分类结果将22个样方划分为2个植被类型、5个群系、7个群丛组；并分别对各群丛组的生境特点、植被树种组成作了论述。DCA二维排序图较好地验证了TWINSPAN的分类结果，并客观地反映了群落的生境特征。随着海拔逐渐升高，华石斛附生群落植被类型从山地常绿林逐渐过渡到高山苔藓矮林，群落中的优势种由喜高温耐干旱的热带、亚热带树种逐渐演变为耐低温喜湿的亚热带、温带树种。华石斛在主要群落类型群系间、群丛组内的数量、密度和空间分布格局表现出较大差异，以具通风、凉爽和高湿环境的高山苔藓矮林附生数量最多。附生群落类型的多样性反映了华石斛对多样生境的适应性。华石斛附生群落植被类型群丛组的划分，进一步细化和丰富了海南热带森林植被类型山地常绿林和高山矮林的划分，有助于了解华石斛自然居群的生境特点，为进一步开展华石斛的保育工作提供了科学依据。 4）兰科菌根菌对兰花种子萌发和原球茎生长起了重要作用，在成年阶段也扮演着重要角色。为了解东南亚特有种五唇兰的菌根形态和菌根真菌的动态侵染过程，对不同生境下两种变异类型（叶背绿色和叶背紫色）的成年植株菌根分三个时间段采样并进行显微观察。结果表明，成年的五唇兰植株与菌根真菌有着密切关系，菌丝的侵染、定殖和消解程度随着生长发育变化而变化；在营养生长阶段和生殖生长阶段都发现菌丝结，这两个阶段的菌丝特征有所不同；而在休眠阶段的菌根中观察不到菌丝结；不同生境和不同变异类型的菌根结构无明显区别。 5)利用种子原地共生萌发技术，通过种子预处理及播种等技术的不断完善，获得了大量种子萌发原球茎；初步揭示了华石斛种子萌发原球茎规律。结果表明：10%NaOH浸泡10min预处理能显著提高华石斛种子萌发率；原生境人工播种明显提高了萌发的原球茎数及宿主原球茎产生率；但不同附生宿主间存在差异，自然萌发原球茎数非常低。播种后2.5个月左右种子开始萌发，4.5个月左右达到高峰，在6.5个月原球茎数基本趋于稳定。 6)华石斛菌根化苗重引入实验结果表明，实验室筛选的有益真菌与原生境下筛选有益真菌存在一定差异。菌根化苗重引入野外生境，3个月后以12号华石斛菌根化苗生长最好，3、9号华石斛菌根化苗生长较正常，而7、10号两种华石斛菌根化苗叶片受损或死亡，无菌组培苗基本已死亡；华石斛菌根化苗成活率在50%以上，而对照几乎全部死亡；从菌根化苗长势评价，3、9、12号3个内生真菌华石斛菌根化苗生长较好，为真正有益共生真菌。

Sleeping sites, sleeping trees, and sleep-related behaviors of black crested gibbons (Nomascus concolor jingdongensis) at Mt. Wuliang, central Yunnan, China

Data on sleep-related behaviors were collected for a group of central Yunnan black crested gibbons (Nomascus concolor jingdongensis) at Mt. Wuliang, Yunnan, China from March 2005 to April 2006. Members of the group usually formed four sleeping units (adult male and juvenile, adult female with one semi-dependent black infant, adult female with one dependent yellow infant, and subadult male) spread over different sleeping trees. Individuals or units preferred specific areas to sleep; all sleeping sites were situated in primary forest, mostly (77%) between 2,200 and 2,400 m in elevation. They tended to sleep in the tallest and thickest trees with large crowns on steep slopes and near important food patches. Factors influencing sleeping site selection were (1) tree characteristics, (2) accessibility, and (3) easy escape. Few sleeping trees were used repeatedly by the same or other members of the group. The gibbons entered the sleeping trees on average 128 min before sunset and left the sleeping trees on average 33 min after sunrise. The lag between the first and last individual entering the trees was on average 17.8 min. We suggest that sleep-related behaviors are primarily adaptations to minimize the risk of being detected by predators. Sleeping trees may be chosen to make approach and attack difficult for the predator, and to provide an easy escape route in the dark. In response to cold temperatures in a higher habitat, gibbons usually sit and huddle together during the night, and in the cold season they tend to sleep on ferns and/or orchids.

云南西双版纳几种热带兰菌根真菌的研究

:从云南西双版纳不同生境下的14 株热带兰菌根中分离到19 株真菌,分别鉴定为9 个属,其中优势 菌为镰孢霉属( Fusarium) 9 株占47. 37 %;组丝核菌属( Phacodium) 3 株占15. 79 %.

Plastid microsatellites for the study of genetic variability in the widespread Cephalanthera longifolia, C. damasonium and C. rubra (Neottieae, Orchidaceae), and cross-amplification in other Cephalanthera species

Plastid microsatellite loci developed for Cephalanthera longifolia were used to examine the level of genetic variation within and between populations of the three widespread Cephalanthera species (C. damasonium, C. longifolia and C. rubra). The most detailed sampling was in C. longifolia (42 localities from Ireland to China; 147 individuals). Eight haplotypes were detected. One was detected in the vast majority of individuals and occurred from Ireland to Iran. Three others were only found in Europe (Ireland to Italy, England to Italy and Austria to Croatia). Two were only found in the Middle East and two only in Asia. In C. damasonium, 21 individuals from 10 populations (England to Turkey) were sampled. Only one haplotype was detected. In C. rubra, 34 individuals from eight populations (England to Turkey) were sampled. Although it was not possible to amplify all loci for all samples of this species, nine haplotypes were detected. Short alleles for the trnS-trnG region found in two populations of C. rubra were characterized by sequencing and were caused by deletions of 26 and 30 base pairs. At this level of sampling, it appears that C. rubra shows the greatest genetic variability. Cephalanthera longifolia, C. rubra and C. damasonium have previously been characterized as outbreeding, outbreeding with facultative vegetative reproduction and inbreeding, respectively. Patterns of genetic variation here are discussed in the light of these reproductive system differences. The primers used in these three species of Cephalanthera were also demonstrated to amplify these loci in another five species (C. austiniae, C. calcarata, C. epipactoides, C. falcata and C. yunnanensis). Although it is sometimes treated as a synonym of C. damasonium, the single sample of C. yunnanensis from China had a markedly different haplotype from that found in C. damasonium. All three loci were successfully amplified in two achlorophyllous, myco-heterotrophic species, C. austinae and C. calcarata. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London.

Microsatellite loci for euglossine bees (Hymenoptera : Apidae)

The Neotropical Euglossini (Hymenoptera: Apidae) are important pollinators of many flowering plants, particularly orchids. Lack of highly polymorphic genetic markers for euglossine species has limited the study of their social organization and inbreeding. We therefore developed microsatellite markers for two species, Eulaema nigrita (11 loci) and Euglossa cordata (nine loci), most of which were highly polymorphic in the source species and in a range of related euglossine bees.

Doubly duped males: the sweet and sour of the orchid's bouquet

Flowers of the orchid genus Ophrys resemble female insects, and thereby sexually deceive, attract and are pollinated by male insects. Floral bouquet is thought to play a major role in this sexual mimicry, although the search for functional odour components has been something of a chemical ecologist's Holy Grail. Two new papers unravel the exquisite intricacy of the chemical deception by the orchid.

Mating behavior and chemical communication in the order hymenoptera

Insects of the order Hymenoptera are biologically and economically important members of natural and agro ecosystems and exhibit diverse biologies, mating systems, and sex pheromones. We review what is known of their sex pheromone chemistry and function, paying particular emphasis to the Hymenoptera Aculeata (primarily ants, bees, and sphecid and vespid wasps), and provide a framework for the functional classification of their sex pheromones. Sex pheromones often comprise multicomponent blends derived from numerous exocrine tissues, including the cuticle. However, very few sex pheromones have been definitively characterized using bioassays, in part because of the behavioral sophistication of many Aculeata. The relative importance of species isolation versus sexual selection in shaping sex pheromone evolution is still unclear. Many species appear to discriminate among mates at the level of individual or kin/colony, and they use antiaphrodisiacs. Some orchids use hymenopteran sex pheromones to dupe males into performing pseudocopulation, with extreme species specificity.

Microsatellite loci for Euglossa annectans (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and their variability in other orchid bees

Orchid or euglossine bees are conspicuous Hymenoptera of the Neotropics, where they pollinate numerous plants, including orchids. Allozyme-based analyses have suggested that their populations suffer from inbreeding, as evidenced by so-called diploid male production. We have developed nine polymorphic microsatellite loci for the widespread Euglossa annectans, with observed heterozygosities ranging from 0.143 to 0.952 and between 2 and 9 alleles per species. These loci will be useful for analysis of relatedness, population genetic structure and diploid male production in this and related species.

Micromorphology of the labellum and structure of the osmophore in a group of closely related species of the sexually deceptive Orchid genus Ophrys (orchidaceae)

Tese de doutoramento, Biologia (Biologia Celular), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2016

Comparative micromorphology of nectariferous and nectarless labellar spurs in selected clades of subtribe Orchidinae (Orchidaceae)

Floral nectar spurs are widely considered to influence pollinator behaviour in orchids. Spurs of 21 orchid species selected from within four molecularly circumscribed clades of subtribe Orchidinae (based on Platanthera s.l., Gymnadenia-Dactylorhiza s.l., Anacamptis s.l., Orchis s.s.) were examined under light and scanning electron microscopes in order to estimate correlations between nectar production (categorized as absent, trace, reservoir), interior epidermal papillae (categorized as absent, short, medium, long) and epidermal cell striations (categorized as apparently absent, weak, moderate, strong). Closely related congeneric species scored similarly, but more divergent species showed less evidence of phylogenetic constraints. Nectar secretion was negatively correlated with striations and positively correlated with papillae, which were especially frequent and large in species producing substantial reservoirs of nectar. We speculate that the primary function of the papillae is conserving energy through nectar resorption and explain the presence of large papillae in a minority of deceit-pollinated species by arguing that the papillae improve pollination because they are a tactile expectation of pollinating insects. In contrast, the prominence of striations may be a 'spandrel', simply reflecting the thickness of the overlying cuticle. Developmentally, the spur is an invagination of the labellum; it is primarily vascularized by a single 'U'-shaped primary strand, with smaller strands present in some species. Several suggestions are made for developing further, more targeted research programmes. (C) 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 160, 369-387.

Conservation and sustainable use of wild species as sources of new ornamentals

While only about 1-200 species are used intensively in commercial floriculture (e.g. carnations, chrysanthemums, gerbera, narcissus, orchids, tulips, lilies, roses, pansies and violas, saintpaulias, etc.) and 4-500 as house plants, several thousand species of herbs, shrubs and trees are traded commercially by nurseries and garden centres as ornamentals or amenity species. Most of these have been introduced from the wild with little selection or breeding. In Europe alone, 12 000 species are found in cultivation in general garden collections (i.e. excluding specialist collections and botanic gardens). In addition, specialist collections (often very large) of many other species and/or cultivars of groups such as orchids, bromeliads, cacti and succulents, primulas, rhododendrons, conifers and cycads are maintained in several centres such as botanic gardens and specialist nurseries, as are 'national collections' of cultivated species and cultivars in some countries. Specialist growers, both professional and amateur, also maintain collections of plants for cultivation, including, increasingly, native plants. The trade in ornamental and amenity horticulture cannot be fully estimated but runs into many billions of dollars annually and there is considerable potential for further development and the introduction of many new species into the trade. Despite this, most of the collections are ad hoc and no co-ordinated efforts have been made to ensure that adequate germplasm samples of these species are maintained for conservation purposes and few of them are represented at all adequately in seed banks. Few countries have paid much attention to germplasm needs of ornamentals and the Ornamental Plant Germplasm Center in conjunction with the USDA National Plant Germplasm System at The Ohio State University is an exception. Generally there is a serious gap in national and international germplasm strategies, which have tended to focus primarily on food plants and some forage and industrial crops. Adequate arrangements need to be put in place to ensure the long- and medium-term conservation of representative samples of the genetic diversity of ornamental species. The problems of achieving this will be discussed. In addition, a policy for the conservation of old cultivars or 'heritage' varieties of ornamentals needs to be formulated. The considerable potential for introduction of new ornamental species needs to be assessed. Consideration needs to be given to setting up a co-ordinating structure with overall responsibility for the conservation of germplasm of ornamental and amenity plants.

Chloroplast microsatellite markers for the Neotropical orchid genus Epidendrum, and cross-amplification in other Laeliinae species (Orchidaceae)

One of the most significant challenges confronting orchid researchers is the lack of specific molecular markers, mainly for species in the Neotropics. Here we report the first set of specific chloroplast microsatellite primers (cpSSR) developed for Neotropical orchids. In total, nine polymorphic cpSSR loci were isolated and characterized in four species occurring in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest: Epidendrum cinnabarinum, E. denticulatum, E. fulgens and E. puniceoluteum. Levels of intraspecific polymorphism were characterized using two populations for each species, with 13-20 individuals each. Allele numbers varied from two to three per locus, while the number of haplotypes ranged from three to six per species. Extensive differentiation among the taxa was detected. All markers were successfully cross-amplified in eight other different genera. These cpSSRs markers will enable novel insights into the evolution of this important Neotropical genus.