Fossil and Nonfossil Sources of Organic and Elemental Carbon Aerosols in the Outflow from Northeast China

Source quantification of carbonaceous aerosols in the Chinese outflow regions still remains uncertain despite their high mass concentrations. Here, we unambiguously quantified fossil and nonfossil contributions to elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC) of total suspended particles (TSP) from a regional receptor site in the outflow of Northeast China using radiocarbon measurement. OC and EC concentrations were lower in summer, representing mainly marine air, than in other seasons, when air masses mostly traveled over continental regions in Mongolia and northeast China. The annual-mean contribution from fossil-fuel combustion to EC was 76 ± 11% (0.1−1.3 μg m−3). The remaining 24 ± 11% (0.03−0.42 μg m−3) was attributed to biomass burning, with slightly higher contribution in the cold period (∼31%) compared to the warm period (∼21%) because of enhanced emissions from regional biomass combustion sources in China. OC was generally dominated by nonfossil sources, with an annual average of 66 ± 11% (0.5−2.8 μg m−3), approximately half of which was apportioned to primary biomass burning sources (34 ± 6%). In winter, OC almost equally originated from primary OC (POC) emissions and secondary OC (SOC) formation from fossil fuel and biomass-burning sources. In contrast, summertime OC was dominated by primary biogenic emissions as well as secondary production from biogenic and biomass-burning sources, but fossil-derived SOC was the smallest contributor. Distinction of POC and SOC was performed using primary POC-to-EC emission ratios separated for fossil and nonfossil emissions.

内蒙古草地植被群落生物量的梯度特征研究

Relationship between biology and environment is always the theme of ecology. Transect is becoming one of the important methods in studies on relationship between global change and terrestrial ecosystems, especially for analysis of its driving factors. Inner Mongolia Grassland is the most important in China Grassland Transect brought forward by Yu GR. In this study, changes in grassland community biomass along gradients of weather conditions in Inner Mongolia was researched by the method of transect. Methods of regression about biomass were also compared. The transect was set from Eerguna county to Alashan county (38° 07' 35" ~50° 12' 20" N, 101° 55' 25" -120° 20' 46" E) in Inner Mongolia, China. The sample sites were mainly chosen along the gradient of grassland type, meadow steppe-* typical steppe-*desert steppe-*steppification desert-^desert. The study was carried out when grassland community biomass got the peak in August or September, 2003 and 2004. And data of 49 sample sites was gotten, which included biomass, mean annual temperature, annual precipitation, accumulated temperature above zero, annual hours of sunshine and other statistical and descriptive data. The aboveground biomass was harvested, and the belowground biomass was obtained by coring (30 cm deep). Then all the biomass samples were dried within (80 + 5) °C in oven and weighted. The conclusion is as follows: 1) From the northeast to the southwest in Inner Mongolia, along the gradient of grassland type, meadow steppe-*typical steppe-*desert steppe-*steppification desert-* desert, the cover degree of vegetation community reduces. 2) By unitary regression analysis, biomass is negatively correlated with mean annual temperature, s^CTC accumulated temperature, ^10°C accumulated temperature and annual hours of sunshine, among which mean annual temperature is crucial, and positively with mean annual precipitation and mean annual relative humidity, and the correlation coefficient between biomass and mean annual relative humidity is higher. Altitude doesn't act on it evidently. Result of multiple regression analysis indicates that as the primary restrictive factor, precipitation affects biomass through complicated way on large scale, and its impaction is certainly important. Along the gradient of grassland type, total biomass reduces. The proportion of aboveground biomass to total biomass reduces and then increases after desert steppe. The trend of below ground biomass's proportion to total biomass is adverse to that of aboveground biomass. 3) Precipitation is not always the only driving factor along the transect for below-/aboveground biomass ratio of different vegetation type composed by different species, and distribution of temperature and precipitation is more important, which is much different among climatic regions, so that the trend of below-/aboveground biomass ratio along the grassland transect may change much through the circumscription of semiarid region and arid region. 4) Among reproductive allocation of aboveground biomass, only the proportion of stem in total biomass notably correlates to the given parameters. Stem/leaf biomass ratio decreases when longitude and latitude increase, caloric variables decrease, and variables about water increase from desert to meadow steppe. The change trends are good modeled by logarithm or binomial equations. 5) 0'-10 cm belowground biomass highly correlates to environmental parameters, whose proportion to total biomass changes most distinctly and increases along the gradient from the west to the east. The deeper belowground biomass responses to the environmental change on the adverse trend but not so sensitively as the surface layer. Because the change value of 0~10 cm belowground biomass is always more than that of below 10 cm along the gradient, the deference between them is balanced by aboveground biomass's change by the resource allocation equilibrium hypothesis.

全球变化的植被——环境相关性：中国和东北样带（NECT）研究

全球变化与陆地生态系统(GCTE)的研究一直是国际地圈一生物圈计划(IGBP)．全球变化研究的焦点之一，其中植被与环境，尤其是气候的关系研究，虽然古老却又包含许多新的涵义，而陆地样带(Terrestrial Transect)则是近年来发起于GCTE，并拓展到IGBP其它核心项目的研究热点．博士后研究的主要工作有：将全球变化作为主线，以单个树种青冈(Cyclobalanopsisgtauco)为对象，研究其过去、现在和将来的地理分布与气候的关系;分别利用气温和降水指标，拓展Kira指标形成生物热量指数和干湿度指数，以及建立水热积指数，在宏观尺度上研究了中国植被与气候的关系;结合生物群区和植物功能型概念的发展以及生物多样性的研究，进行了以生物多样性保育为目的的我国生态地理区划;在熟悉IGBP陆地样带的科学计划并总结其最新发展动态的基础上，分析了中国东北样带的基本生态地理特征;最后，粗略分析r生物性多样保育与自然保护区建设和管理的关系问题。 1.植被一环境（气候）分类：指标、系统和模型 植被一气候关系是一个古老的命题，但在当今的全球变化研究中成为最基础和最具活力的工作。从单一因子的或多因子简单组合的分类指标，如Koppen，Box指标等，到以可能蒸散为基础的综合分类指标，如Penman，Thornthwaite, Holdridge，Budyko，Kira指标等，科学家们发展了众多的植被一气候分类系统和模型，如Koppen．Thornthwaite，Holdridge. Kira. Box. Neilson.Woodward, Budyko, Prentice系统，以及Holdridge，Uvardy，Matthews. Olson. Bailey．Woodward.Prentice. Box模型，为现今植被一气候关系的研究以及全球变化对陆地生态系统的影响，和大气C02增加对潜在植被变化的响应预测奠定了良好的基础。 2.基于物种的植被一气候关系研究：中国青冈的地理分布与气候的关系 在广泛收集青冈[Cyclobalanopsis glauca (Thunb.) Oerst.]地理分布资料的基础上，利用目前国际上比较流行的研究植被与气候相互关系的指标和方法，包括Kira的水热指标、Penman的公式、Thomthwaite的指标和气候分类、Holdridge的生命地带分类系统指标， 以及年平均气温(TEMP). 1月均温(Tl)、’7月均温(T7)、极端最高气温(TMAX)、极端最低气温(TMIN).≥10℃积温(AT)和年降水量(PREC)，研究了青冈在中国的地理分布与气候的关系，讨论了青冈垂直分布的上限、下限以及北界的Kira热量指标状况。根据孢粉资料和历史文献，探讨r历史时期青冈在中国大陆的分布与变迁及其与气候的关系，并利用Holdridge生命地带分类系统指标预测了C02浓度倍增条件下中国青冈分布区的可能变化。 3.宏观尺度上的中国植被一气候关系 1）用气温、降水指标研究中国植被一气候关系 能够在气象台站直接、方便地测试到的年平均气温、降水量指标，与其它水热气候因子有显著的相关性，用它们来研究中国植被与气候的关系是可行且有用的。利用全国689个气象站点的气象记录，计算得出了中国各植被地带、亚地带的年平均气温，年降水量指标和温雨系数，利用生态信息系统EIS作出了各气候指标在中国的分布，并将年平均气温和降水量作散点图，均较好地表现了中国各植被类型与气候指标的关系和格局。总结可得中国各植被地带的气候指标范围及界限。综合孢粉，古生物等资料信息，前人确定在全新世中期中国存在一个大暖期，其中稳定暖湿的鼎盛阶段在7.2—6,0 Ka．B.P.，其时中国境内大部分地区的年平均气温比现在高2℃左右，年降水平均高于现在100 mm，通过数学处理，利用生态信息系统恢复重建了全新世大暖期中国大陆的气温和降水分布状况．参考孢粉、古植物和他人研究资料及现代植被气候关系，恢复编制了大暖期鼎盛阶段中国大陆的植被区划图，与现代植被区划相比较，东部各个植被带在大暖期盛时表现出明显的北迁，温带植被的迁移幅度大于亚热带和热带植被;西部的植被带出现了经向西迁，西北部的草原范围扩张，荒漠缩小;青藏高原地区高寒半荒漠和荒漠植被的范围大大缩小，而且植被带仍有不同程度向北迁移的表现。这可为预测与阐明未来的气候变化和植被变迁提供有力的证据． 2）KIRA指标的拓展及其在中国植被与气候关系研究中的应用 根据Kira以月平均气温5℃为界的热量指数和干湿度指数概念，提出了以月平均气温10℃为界的生物热量指数，包括生物温暖指数BWI和生物寒冷指数BCI，并修正其干湿度指数为生物干湿度指数BK。利用中国689个标准气象台站的资料，分析我国主要植被类型分布与热量因子和干湿度因子的关系，得出两者之间有较好的相关性，生物温暖指数、寒冷指数和干湿度指数的散点图，较好地表现了中国各植被类型与气候指标的关系和格局。并得出中国各植被地带的气候指标范围及界限，以1 0℃为界的生物温暖指数不仅对我国森林植被的地理分布和温度气候带的划分具有较好的指示作用，而且对西南部高山、亚高山地区的植被与气候关系指示性较强;生物寒冷指数则对亚热带和热带的指示性很好，能够较好区分亚热带南部及热带地区;由热量指数和降水量综合得出的生物干湿度指数，对中国西北部干旱、半干旱区以至全国的植被分布与水分、热量因子的关系分析有较好的应用价值。 3）水热积指数的估算及其在中国植被与气候关系研究中的应用 试图利用大气年平均气温、年降水量、可能蒸散和土壤水分平衡之间的关系建立一个水热积指数，并应用年平均气温．水分盈亏值和水热积指数三个气候变量来限定植物群落组合，构成一个圆形的生命-气候图式．根据全国689个标准气象台站的气候资料，计算了中国8个植被地带和26个亚地带的年平均气温、年水分盈亏和水热积指数，绘制了各气候指标在中国的分布图及散点图，较好表现了中国各植被类型与气候指标的关系和格局，包括寒温带针叶林、冷温带针阔叶混交林、暖温带落叶阔叶林、亚热带常绿阔叶林、热带雨林和季雨林、温带草原、温带荒漠、青藏高原高寒植被，并得到了中国各植被地带的气候指标范围及界限。通过分析可以看出，年平均气温的等值线较好地反映了中国大陆的热量梯度，经度和纬度方向的区分均较明显;土壤水分盈亏曲线的等值线则比较零乱;综合了热量和水分差异的水热积指数，其等值线与热量梯度和水分梯度均有一定的对应性，与植被类型的对应也较好。这是在宏观尺度上进行的植被与气候关系研究的一种尝试，有待于增加机理性的内容，使其得到进一步的改进。 4.生物多样性保育和全球变化研究中的陆地生物群区类型 Biome(生物群区)是当今生物多样性保育和全球变化研究中的一个重要概念，根据此概念及植物功能型概念的发展，评述了9个重要的世界陆地生物群区分类系统，并根据中国的植被分类和区划，尝试划分了在中国的生物多样性保育和全球变化研究中所需要的陆地生物群区类型。 5.中国生物多样性的生态地理区划 利用各种生态地理因子，包括气候指标如与植物耐寒性有关的绝对最低温度(TMrN)，最冷月平均气温(TJAN)，最冷月日平均温度的最大值(MXT)和最小值(MIT);与需热性有关的植物生长季积温(AT);年降水量的季节分配，包括最冷月降水(PJAN)，最热月降水(PJUL)，年降水量，年降水的统计标准差(PSD)和变异系数(年变率PCV);植被指标如植被类型(VEGET)、，植被区划类型(VEGED)、植被的净第一性生产力(NPP)、植物区系类型(FLORA)、动物区系类型(FA UNA).植物特有属的丰富度(EDGENUS)以及度量植物多样性的植物种丰富度(属数GENUS、种数SPECIES);土壤指标如土壤类型(SOILT)，土壤理化性质如土壤酸碱度(SOILPH)、土壤表层阳离子交换量(SOILEXC)等;地形和地貌特征如经度(LONG)、纬度(LAT)和海拔高度(ALT)，利用模糊聚类的手段，综合进行了中国生物多样性的生态地理区划。采用四级区划，即：生物大区(biodomain) -生物亚区(subbiodomain) -生物群区(biome) -生物区(bioregion).全国划分为5个生物大区，7个生物亚区和1 8个生物群区。 I北方森林大区 I A欧亚北方森林亚区 I Al南泰加山地寒温针叶林 IA2北亚针阔叶混交林 II北方草原荒漠大区 II B欧亚草原亚区 II Bl内亚温带高草草原 II B2黄土高原森林草原（灌木草原） il C亚非荒漠亚区 II Cl中亚温带荒漠 ⅡC2蒙古／内亚温带荒漠 III东亚大区 III D东亚落叶阔叶林亚区 m DI东亚落叶阔叶林 III E东亚常绿阔叶林亚区 III El东亚落叶•常绿阔叶混交林 III E2东亚常绿阔叶林 ⅡI E3东亚季风常绿阔叶林 III E4西部山地常绿阔叶林 IV旧热带大区 IV F印度一马来热带森林亚区 IV Fl北热带雨林、季雨林 IV F2热带海岛植被 V亚洲高原大区 vG青藏高原亚区V Gl青藏高寒灌丛草甸V G2青藏高寒草原V G3青藏高寒荒漠V G4青藏温性草原V Gs青藏温性荒漠IGBP陆地样带：科学计划与最新进展 作为国际地圈一生物圈计划(IGBP)的交叉项目(Interproject)的陆地样带(Terrestrial Transect)，已成为IGBP的全球变化研究中最引人重视的发展和新研究方法之一。它以一系列综合性的全球变化研究计划为基础，是由沿着一个主要全球变化驱动因素（如温度、降水、土地利用强度等）的梯度上的一系列研究站点所构成研究区域，并配合以模型模拟和综合分析，其地理范围为1000 km或更大的长度，数百公里的宽度，以涵盖大气环流模型(GCM)运作的最小单元。本节论述了IGBP陆地样带的概念和研究的意义，样带的类型、一般设计和选择标准，国际上IGBP样带的初步设置，包括①经受土地利用变化的潮湿热带系统;②从北方森林到冻原的高纬度地区;③从干旱森林到灌丛的半干旱热带地区;④从森林或灌丛过渡到草地的中纬度半干旱地区，以及其它的一些样带和PAGES核心计划中的PEP样带，主要内容有样带设置的原因、研究内容和主要样带特点等，并总结了样带的最新研究进展和动态． 6.中国东北样带(N ECT)的生态地理特征分析 陆地样带研究已成为国际地圈-生物圈计划(IGBP):全球变化研究的重要手段与热点。中国东北森林-草原样带(NECT)已被列为IGBP国际全球变化陆地样带之一。该样带在东经1120与130030’之间沿北纬43030’设置，长约l 600 km，是一条中纬度温带以降水为驱动因素的梯度，具有由温带针阔叶混交林向温带草原的3个亚地带：草甸草原、典型草原与荒漠草原过渡的空间系列。本文给出了样带的基本生态地理特征及其梯度分析，包括其地理位置、设置意义、地形地貌、气候梯度、土壤类型、土地利用格局、植被类型、主要优势种和群落类型的生态地理特征以及全新世适宜期（大暖期）的植被分布格局。NECT将成为我国全球变化与陆地生态系统(GCTE)与其它IGBP核心项目研究的前沿阵地。 7.自然保护区的作用、建设和管理及其与生物多样性的关系 一般而言，“就地保护”是保护生物多样性的主要措施和最根本的途径，生境的“就地保护”是生物多样性保护最为有力和最为高效的保护方法，而就地保护的措施就是建立自然保护区，通过对自然保护区的建设和有效管理，使生物多样性得到切实有效的人为保护。从自然保护区定义和类型划分及生物多样性的定义本身可以看出，自然保护区的主要保护对象是世界上丰富多彩的生物多样性，自然保护区是生物多样性就地保护的重要基地，是物种多样性的基因库，是留给野生动植物的宝贵栖息地，应把保护区的建设和生物多样性的保护与持续利用密切结合起来，合理开发利用自然资源，促进生物多样性的可持续发展。

全球变化下中国东北样带植物多样性梯度分析及气候-NDVI-植被的关系研究

中国东北样带（NorthEast China Transect, NECT）是位于中纬度温带以降水量作为主要驱动因素的陆地样带。本文的工作以此作为研究平台，利用生态信息系统（Ecological Information System, EIS）以及Microsoft Excel 7.0软件包建立了样带的地理数据库和植物多样性数据库，包括气候数据库、植被数据库、遥感数据库和内蒙内C_4植物数据库以及样带内生态系统特征数据库。在此基础上，主要研究了以下四个方面的内容： 1. 利用Holdridge的生命地带方法对NECT内的生物群区进行了划分。 主要是确定了生物群区间过渡带的位置与宽度，并预测了在全球变化三种模式下NECT内生物群区，尤其是过渡带的变化图景。湿度升高2 ℃后，过渡带的面积都呈扩大化的趋势。森林区对于降水量的变化反应很敏感。荒漠灌丛（即荒漠草原类型）由于其水热条件处于样带内较极端类型，因而对于全球气候变化反应也比较敏感。 2. 研究了NECT内的α、β多样性以及包括生活型、水分生态型、区系地理成分等在内的植物群落特征多样性的梯度变化规律。 研究了样带内的多样性梯度，提出了在样带内存在的α多样性测度问题以及β多样性沿样带的变化规律：样带内由东到西，β多样性逐渐升高，群落内物种被替代的速率变慢;两种植被类型边界上的两个样地之间的相似程度由东到西呈上升趋势;同一类型群落之间的物种周转率比不同类型群落间的物种周转率相对要低。同时将各个环境因子与α、β多样性作了回归分析，找出样带内决定α、β多样性的主要环境因子指标。 样带内沿43.5°N一线附近植物群落的生活型共有17类，水分生态型8类，区系地理成分包括17类，以此为基础分析了群落特征沿样带的变化规律。并探讨了生活型分布的历史地理原因。 3. 对样带气候－NDVI间的关系以及植被－NDVI的关系进行了探讨。 利用来自气象卫星的遥感数据一归一化植被指数（NDVI），和数值化后的样带1:100万植被图进行叠加，找到NECT内每种植被类型对应的NDVI值。样带内共有植被类型147种，反映在NDVI变化上的植被类型有106类。其中，自然植被101种。 影响年均NDVI分布的因子主要有经度、辐射日照百分率及7月温度，与经度呈正相关，与辐射日照时数及7月温度呈负相关。回归方程如下： NDVI = -220.426 + 3.273Lon - 80.338Ratio - 1.962T_7 (R~2 = 0.9714, F = 521.52, p < 0.001) 4. 研究了NECT内的光合功能型。 主要包括内蒙古地区的C_4植物及其生态地理特性。揭标C_4植物的分类群特性、生活型、水分生态型与区系地理成分等生态学特性。C_4植物分布的科属极其集中。C_4光合型为维管植物某些分类群（科、属、种）的特性，为它们固有的遗传特性。推断C_4起源于草本的某些科属。C_4植物为喜热、耐旱的类群。世界种、泛热带种、泛地中海种C_4植物较集中。 样带内的C_3、C_4功能型及其与环境因子的相关性。样带内C_4和C_3光合型植物组成比例由东到西表现出两高两低的趋势。分布主要与年均温和降水量呈显著相关。 提出了一种新的C_3、C_4鉴别方法。即根据野外测定的光合数据建立了C_3、C_4的判别模型： f_1(x) = -1.5493 + 0.1427Pn + 0.1035Tr + 0.3768ΔT + 0.1000Gs f_2(x) = -15.6142 + 1.0542Pn - 0.2503Tr - 0.2957ΔT + 0.6491Gs 最后，综合7个GCMs模型（GFDL，GISS，LLNL，MPI，OSU，UKMOH，UKMOL）的输出结果，利用此结果和本文建立的回归模型，模拟了样带内生物多样性的窨分布格局，并预测了末来全球变化下归一化植被指数NDVI的空间分布格局的变化。

中国东北样带孢粉-植被的定量关系及古生物群区的反演

基于中国东北样带（NECT）30个植被样方调查和表土孢粉资料，从个体、群落水平研究了孢粉－植被关系，结果表明，孢粉类型与植被关系密切，在 ＝ 0．05的显著性水平上，相关系数大于0．5;表土孢粉组合与植物群落间有较大的相似性，相似系数大于50％。采用定量描述花粉与植物关系的参数：联合指数（association）A、超代表性指数（over-representation）O、低代表性指数（under-representation）U、相关系数（correlation coefficient）C和代表性系数（representation coefficient）R等值，应用TWINSPAN分类、PCA排序和回归分析，把表土花粉类型划分为4类：具代表性类群组Group1，它们能正确反映植被;超代表性类群组Group2，它们常具有高花粉值与植被不成比例;低代表性类群组Group3，它们的花粉很难分离提取;以及低代表性类群的Group4，其花粉在土壤地层中较常见;指出一些常见花粉类型：松（Pinus）、桦（Betula）、栎（Quercus）、椴（Tilia）、槭（Acer）、榆（Ulmus）、蒿（Artemisia）、藜（Chenopodiaceae）、禾本科（Gramineae）和莎草科（Cyperaceae）的回归参数在东部森林区和西部草原区是有变化的，因此回归参数在应用于古植被恢复中要注意适用范围。 以Biomization模型为基础，根据植物的生理生态特性，定义了NECT孢粉类型的植物功能型（PETs）各种生物群区（Biome）的PFTs组合，构建了经表土孢粉检验的适用于NECT的以孢粉数据为驱动的模型框架，该模型模拟的生物群区与其化指标（气候、植物生理、土壤等）模拟划分的BIOME（Holdrige, BIOME3）是可比的，与植被类型有较好的对应性。 根据29剖面（986个样品）的孢粉数据，重建了NECT 6 kaB.P以来的生物群区。从时空二方面阐述了NECT6kaB.P以来生物群区的分布特点： （1）6ka B. P是一暖湿期，气温比现在高1～4℃，降水比现在多50％。落叶阔叶林分最广，面积最大。森林草原、落叶阔叶林、针阔混交林向西延伸最远。 （2）5ka B. P 是一降温期，气温比现在低2℃，降水多30％。有苔原、寒温带针叶林分布。 （3）4ka B. P是一暖湿期，气温比现在高1～2℃，降水比现在多50％。针阔光林和森林草原有最大分布面积。 （4）3Ka－2kaBP的气温与现代相似，降水比现在多20％左右。与4Ka B. P相比，森林和森林草原过渡带都向东移动。 （5）1Ka B. P的气温与现代相似，降水比现在多10％左右。草原向东大幅度扩张，森林分布面积减小。 （6）东部森林，中部森林草原，西部草原的分布格局的3Ka B. P基本确定，此后随着气候的不断变干冷，草原向东扩张。 （7）森林向扩张最大距离的时期发生在6Ka B. P，此时也是森林草原向西扩张最远时期。落叶阔叶林、针阔混交林、森林草原向西移动最大距离的时间是6Ka B. P，草原向西移动最远距离的时期发生在3Ka B. P。

中国东北样带草原段关键种——羊草茎、叶显微结构的生态可塑性及群落功能群组成和多样性研究

陆地样带是国际地圈——生物圈计划(IGBP)研究中最引入注目的创新之一。目前，国际上已经设立了15条陆地样带，研究内容涉及环境梯度分析、气候变化对植被初级生产力的影响及环境变化、土地利用等与植被变化的对应关系等。沿该陆地样带分布较广的关键种生理适应性等方面对影响其生理功能形态结构的研究较少，特别是茎、叶等组织功能研究较少。 中国东北样带(NECT)是全球陆地样带的重要组成部分，多年来已开展了大量深入系统的研究工作，已成为我国生态学、地学等学科的重要研究平台。本研究以中国东北样带中西段广泛分布的重要关键种——羊草（Leymus chinensis）为研究对象，分析了羊草茎、叶显微结构的生态可塑性及其与水分利用效率的关系，进而阐述了羊草适应不同生境条件，特别是适应水分变化的机制，为揭示羊草及其种群、群落乃至以羊草为优势种或建群种的草地生态系统在全球变化背景下的发展趋势提供理论依据。 基于2001年7～8月第3次中国东北样带考察资料，采用高精度Olympus显微镜及C同位素分析技术（δ13C判别值），结合在野外取样过程中测定的样地土壤含水量和海拔高度，以及近十年各样地年降水量和年均温度气象资料，分析了羊草茎、叶显微结构和水分利用变化与环境因子的关系，以及以羊草为建群种或共建种的无牧和放牧样地群落生物量、物种多样性和植物功能型组成变化与环境因子的关系。 结果表明：羊草叶片表面及内部主要显微结构特征参数各样地间有不同程度的差异，其中气孔密度与降水量呈线性正相关。代表气孔开张程度的气孔长度和宽度变化与土壤含水量呈线性相关。叶表面角质层厚度与海拔高度变化关系较大，并以上表面角质层厚度变化最为明显，主要受海拔高度升高引起的紫外线照射增强的影响。运动细胞带宽度占叶面积比虽然与各环境因子关系不很密切，但温度变化的影响较突出，这一显微结构调整与气孔变化构成干旱——高温调节机制。叶片表面毛茸的变化也是非常显著的，但与各环境因子关系密切程度均不大，可以肯定的是在土壤水分状况较好的生境下羊草叶片表面毛茸密度及长度明显增加，而一些干旱生境中常表现为毛茸较少、较短，个别样地基本没有发育较好的毛茸。总体上看，羊草叶片对干旱化的形态结构调整以气孔密度和开张程度的变化最大，是羊草叶片调节水分利用效率的重要适应性生态可塑性调整。 与叶片相比，羊草茎横切面结构特征的变化与各环境因子关系的显著性不是很强，但各样地间的差异是比较显著的，许多结构调整可能与土壤养分条件的变化有一定关系，如茎秆粗度变化、基本薄壁组织厚度和中央空腔（髓腔）直径的变化等，但本研究未能涉及这方面内容，有待于进一步研究。 羊草水分利用效率与降水量和土壤含水量呈显著的负相关关系，即随降水量和土壤含水量增大羊草水分利用效率明显降低，蒸腾耗水增大，这一生理变化与显微结构的调整关系密切，特别是气孔密度与气孔宽度在水分较差生境中明显减小，从而有利于适应干旱环境，减少耗水量。表现比较突出的是非地带性林西样地，其降水量处于10个样地的中等偏低水平，但其δ13C判别值较低，达-26.063‰，与降水量较大的长岭、双辽样地几乎相当，并比相邻的林东和克旗样地明显低，其气孔密度、开张程度及叶脉后生导管直径均较高（大），但其土壤水分状况是最好的样地之一，尽管取样时不幸遇到雨天，但从其群落类型——羊草杂类草草甸，并伴生许多中、湿生种类上看，其生境的湿润程度是毋庸置疑的。这一非地带性样地中羊草结构的变化从另一侧面反映了羊草显微结构调整对水分环境的适应。δ13C判别值是一个非常敏感的参数，在分析植物水分利用效率及其相关领域的研究中应深入利用。 群落植物功能群组成与环境因子及群落初级生产力关系研究结果表明，丛生禾草生长型功能群、旱生和中旱生植物水分生态类型功能群具有明显的地带性变化规律，并与群落生物量变化关系密切，变异性较低，占群落生物量比例较大，可考虑作为植物功能型组合对无牧样地植被变化进行评估和预测。在放牧影响下，C4植物光合类型功能群呈现明显的地带性变化，并在群落中所起的作用明显增强，亦可考虑作为评估和预测植被变化的植物功能型组合。无牧样地与放牧样地研究结果均表明，按Raunkiaer划分的地面芽、地下芽、地上芽和一年生植物生活型功能群，其地带性变化不明显，或变异率高，或占群落生物量比例小，不宜作植物功能群组合对植被变化进行评估和预测。

土壤有机碳和氮的分布及其对气候变化的响应

碳、氮不仅是生物体必需的营养元素，也是重要的生态元素。大气中温室气体C02、N2O等浓度的增加使得碳、氮的生物地球化学循环及其温室气体的减缓排放措施研究成为全球变化研究中的热点问题。 土壤是陆地生态系统的核心，是连接大气圈、水圈、生物圈、岩石圈的纽带;它是陆生生物赖以生存的物质基础，是陆地生态系统中物质与能量交换的重要场所，其在全球碳、氮循环中起着十分重要的作用。一方面，土壤有机碳和氮的含量与分布直接关系到生态系统的生产力和生态系统的规模，同时土壤有机碳和氮的转化与迁移又直接影响到温室气体的组成与含量。而土壤本身又是生态系统中生物与环境相互作用的产物。因此，研究土壤有机碳和氮的分布、转化及其对全球变化的响应对于正确理解碳、氮的生物地球化学循环及其对全球变化的响应制定应对策略具有重要意义。 全球变化的陆地样带是从机理上理解陆地生态系统对全球变化的响应，预测全球变化对陆地生态系统的可能影响，实现预警、调节和减少全球变化不良影响，科学地规划和管理陆地生态系统的有效平台。目前，国际地圈一生物圈计划(IGBP)基于不同地区全球变化驱动因素的不同以及全球变化的潜在反馈作用强度的不同，在全球4个关键地区共启动了15条IG8P陆地样带。以水分为主要驱动力的中国东北样带(NECT：Northeast China Transect)即为IGBP的陆地样带之一。 本文以中国东北样带为平台，基于2001年对中国东北样带科学考察所采土壤样品的实测结果和气候资料分析了土壤有机碳和氮的梯度分布及其与土壤、气候等因子之间的关系;借助C02浓度升高和不同土壤湿度的模拟试验探讨了土壤有机碳和氮对气候变化的响应;根据作物残体还田的长期定位试验和盆栽试验研究了作物残体还田对土壤有机碳和氮转化的影响，讨论了农田生态系统通过作物残体还田对减缓温室气体排放的效应。主要结果和结论如下： (1).样带表层土壤有机碳平均为22.3土4.93 g．kg-1，下层土壤有机碳平均为8.9±1.20 g．kg-1。样带表层土壤活性有机碳平均为3.52±0.881 g.kg-1，占表层土壤有机碳的13.1±0.78%;下层土壤活性有机碳平均为1.14±0.250g.kg-l，占下层土壤有机碳的10.9±0.79%。样带土壤活性有机碳与土壤有机碳之间呈极显著正相关关系(相关系数r=0.993，P<0.001)。 (2).不同生态类型土壤有机碳和活性有机碳含量不同。中国东北样带东部(经度126°～131°)为温带针阔混交林山地，植被种类极其丰富，地带性土壤为暗棕壤，并且多为自然土壤，土壤有机碳和活性有机碳含量较高。但由于采样区局部地理环境、植被结构及人类干扰程度的不同，土壤有机碳和活性有机碳含量变异较大，平均为61.9±13.84 g．kg-1和10. 88±2.236g. kg-1。样带中部（经度119°～126°）为松辽平原栎林草原、农田区和大兴安岭山地草甸草原区，属半湿润向半干旱过渡的气候。该区域主要土壤类型为黑土、黑钙土、盐化或碱化草甸土及风沙土，土壤沙化、碱化严重，土壤有机碳和活性有机碳含量明显降低，平均为10.5±1.97 g．kg-l和1. 35±0.327 g．kg-1。样带中西部（经度113°～119°）为内蒙古高原草甸草原和典型草原区域，具有典型的半干旱气候特征。该区地带性土壤为栗钙土，局部丘陵区分布黑钙土，土壤有机碳和活性有机碳含量为14.6±1.65 g．kg-1和2.07±0.342g.kg-1。样带西部（经度111°～113°）为内蒙古高原荒漠草原区域，地带性土壤为棕钙土，土壤较为贫瘠，其有机碳和活性有机碳含量最低，平均为7.99±1.51 g．kg-1和0.51±0.216 g．kg-1。从总的趋势看，样带表层土壤有机碳和活性有机碳的梯度分布趋势一致，都呈现出随经度降低而下降的趋势，局部因土壤退化而出现波动。 (3).样带土壤有机碳和活性有机碳与土壤全量氮、磷、硫、锌及有效氮、磷、钾、锰、锌等均呈显著或极显著相关关系，与土壤PH、容重、持水量及孔隙度也呈显著或极显著相关关系。土壤表层有机碳和活性有机碳与降水量之间具有正的相关关系，其相关系数为r=0.677（P<0.001）和r=0.712（P<0.001）。但下层土壤有机碳和活性有机碳与降水量之间没有显著的相关关系。 (4).样带下层土壤有机碳和活性有机碳与经度之间仍具有显著的相关关系（r=0.454，P=0.026; r=0.473，P=0.020）。样带下层土壤有机碳和活性有机碳的变异小于表层。不同的生态系统，下层土壤有机碳和活性有机碳与表层土壤有机碳和活性有机碳的比率不同。总的来看，土壤活性有机碳含量随深度的增加而下降的幅度大于土壤有机碳。 (5).短期培养条件下，CO2浓度升高及干旱胁迫下，土壤有机碳的变化不大，其变异系数为1.28%;相比较之下，土壤活性有机碳对气候变化比较敏感，其变异系数为29.67%。不同土壤湿度，土壤活性有机碳含量发生变异的幅度因CO2浓度升高而降低。 (6).样带土壤全氮和有效氮与经度呈极显著正相关，其相关系数分别是r=0.695 (P<0.001)和0.636(P<0.001)。土壤表层全氮和有效氮的梯度分布与土壤有机碳的分布基本一致：沿经度呈现东高西低的趋势，局部由于土壤退化而出现低谷。样带除东部山区外，其它各部分土壤有效氮都很低，成为其植被生长的限制因子之一。样带下层土壤全氮和有效氮的含量低于表层，但样带不同部位下层土壤全氮和有效氮下降的幅度不同。总的来看，土壤全氮的剖面分布和土壤有机碳相似，而土壤有效氮则有所不同。 (7).土壤全氮和有效氮是土壤生化环境中两个重要的因子。样带土壤全氮和有效氮和土壤有机碳、全磷、全硫、全锌、土壤活性碳、有效磷、有效钾、有效锰、有效锌、土壤容重、田间持水量土壤总孔度等因子均呈显著或极显著的相关关系。 (8).样带表层土壤全氮和有效氮与降雨量之间呈极显著的正相关关系，相关系数分别是0.682(P<0.001)和0.688(P<0.001)。而下层土壤全氮和有效氮与降雨量之间的没有显著的相关关系（r=0.241，P=0.256; r=0.366，P=0.079）。土壤有效氮占全氮的比例与年均温呈显著正相关关系（相关系数r=0.390，p=0.044）。 (9).短期培养试验中，CO2浓度加倍和不同土壤湿度对土壤全氮和有效氮的影响没有达到显著水平。整个试验中土壤全氮和有效氮的变异较小（变异系数分别是5.55%和3.84%），但仍能反映一定的变化趋势。 (10)．玉米残体还田能够增加土壤氮素含量，减轻因其作为燃烧材料而造成的氮素损失和对大气的污染;玉米残体施入土壤，增加了土壤微生物氮含量，提高土壤氮活性，有利于土壤氮素养分的协调供应;玉米残体还田能够促进氮素从营养器官向籽粒中转移，提高氮素养分的利用效率。同时，玉米残体还田可以降低土壤NO3--N的累 积，减少肥料氮的损失4.7～5.6%。 (ll)．根据国内外文献和我们连续10年作物残体还田的肥料长期定位试验及盆栽试验结果，从减缓CO2排放、增加土壤碳固存、提高土壤生产力入手，分析了农业生态系统作物残体还田的必要性与可行性，讨论了农田作物残体还田，增加土壤碳固存对于减缓CO2排放、提高土壤生产力的作用与意义。提倡作物残体因地制宜地归还土壤，但作物残体还田后土壤固存与减缓温室气体排放的潜力还需要进一步进行研究。

Spatial patterns and driving forces of land use change in China during the early 21st century

Land use and land cover change as the core of coupled human-environment systems has become a potential field of land change science (LCS) in the study of global environmental change. Based on remotely sensed data of land use change with a spatial resolution of 1 km x 1 km on national scale among every 5 years, this paper designed a new dynamic regionalization according to the comprehensive characteristics of land use change including regional differentiation, physical, economic, and macro-policy factors as well. Spatial pattern of land use change and its driving forces were investigated in China in the early 21st century. To sum up, land use change pattern of this period was characterized by rapid changes in the whole country. Over the agricultural zones, e.g., Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, the southeast coastal areas and Sichuan Basin, a great proportion of fine arable land were engrossed owing to considerable expansion of the built-up and residential areas, resulting in decrease of paddy land area in southern China. The development of oasis agriculture in Northwest China and the reclamation in Northeast China led to a slight increase in arable land area in northern China. Due to the "Grain for Green" policy, forest area was significantly increased in the middle and western developing regions, where the vegetation coverage was substantially enlarged, likewise. This paper argued the main driving forces as the implementation of the strategy on land use and regional development, such as policies of "Western Development", "Revitalization of Northeast", coupled with rapidly economic development during this period.

STUDY ON THE SPATIAL PATTERNS OF LAND-USE CHANGE AND ANALYSES OF DRIVING FORCES IN NORTHEASTERN CHINA DURING 1990-2000

Land-use change is an important aspect of global environment change. It is, in a sense, the direct result of human activities influencing our physical environment. Supported by the dynamic serving system of national resources, including both the environment database and GIS technology, this paper analyzed the land-use change in northeastern China in the past ten years (1990 - 2000). It divides northeastern China into five land-use zones based on the dynamic degree (DD) of land-use: woodland/grassland - arable land conversion zone, dry land - paddy field conversion zone, urban expansion zone, interlocked zone of farming and pasturing, and reclamation and abandoned zone. In the past ten years, land-use change of northeastern China can be generalized as follows: increase of cropland area was obvious, paddy field and dry land increased by 74. 9 and 276. 0 thousand ha respectively; urban area expanded rapidly, area of town and rural residence increased by 76. 8 thousand ha; area of forest and grassland decreased sharply with the amount of 1399. 0 and 1521. 3 thousand ha respectively; area of water body and unused land increased by 148. 4 and 513. 9 thousand ha respectively. Besides a comprehensive analysis of the spatial patterns of land use, this paper also discusses the driving forces in each land-use dynamic zones. The study shows that some key biophysical factors affect conspicuously the conversion of different land- use types. In this paper, the relationships between land- use conversion and DEM, accnmlated temperature(>= 10 degrees C) and precipitation were analysed and represented. We conclude that the land- use changes in northeast China resulted from the change of macro social and economic factors and local physical elements. Rapid population growth and management changes, in some sense, can explain the shaping of woodland/grassland - cropland conversion zone. The conversion from dry land to paddy field in the dry land - paddy field conversion zone, apart from the physical elements change promoting the expansion of paddy field, results from two reasons: one is that the implementation of market-economy in China has given farmers the right to decide what they plant and how they plant their crops, the other factor is originated partially from the change of dietary habit with the social and economic development. The conversion from paddy field to dry land is caused primarily by the shortfall of irrigation water, which in turn is caused by poor water allocation managed by local governments. The shaping of the reclamation and abandoned zone is partially due to the lack of environment protection consciousness among pioneer settlers. The reason for the conversion from grassland to cropland is the relatively higher profits of fanning than that of pasturing in the interlocked zone of farming and pasturing. In northeastern China, the rapid expansion of built-up areas results from two factors: the first is its small number of towns; the second comes from the huge potential for expansion of existing towns and cities. It is noticeable that urban expansion in the northeastern China is characterized by gentle topographic relief and low population density. Physiognomy, transportation and economy exert great influences on the urban expansion.

Analysis of arable land loss and its impact on rural sustainability in Southern Jiangsu Province of China

Rapid urbanization and industrialization in southern Jiangsu Province have consumed a huge amount of arable land. Through comparative analysis of land cover maps derived from TM images in 1990, 2000 and 2006, we identified the trend of arable land loss. It is found that most arable land is lost to urbanization and rural settlements development. Urban settlements, rural settlements, and industrial park-mine-transport land increased, respectively, by 87 997 ha (174.65%), 81 041 ha (104.52%), and 12 692 ha (397.99%) from 1990 to 2006. Most of the source (e.g., change from) land covers are rice paddy fields and dryland. These two covers contributed to newly urbanized areas by 37.12% and 73.52% during 1990-2000, and 46.39% and 38.86% during 2000-2006. However, the loss of arable land is weakly correlated with ecological service value, per capita net income of farmers, but positively with grain yield for some counties. Most areas in the study site have a low arable land depletion rate and a high potential for sustainable development. More attention should be directed at those counties that have a high depletion rate but a low potential for sustainable development. Rural settlements should be controlled and rationalized through legislative measures to achieve harmonious development between urban and rural areas, and sustainable development for rural areas with a minimal impact on the ecoenvironment. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Major, minor and trace-elemental contents analysis in northeast soybeans by ICP-AES

Major, minor and trace elemental contents in northeast China soybeans were determined by using inductively, coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Three different sample digestion methods including two wet digestions, HNO3-HClO4 and HNO3-H2SO4 and a dry ash method were compared. Owing to the high oil content in soybeans, long time is needed and access acid should be added, with mixed acid digestion methods, which may result in higher sample blank. Therefore, the dry ask method would be more proper for the pre-treatment of soybean samples. Potassium and phosphorus are major elements in soybeans, so the effect of potassium and phosphorus on the other elements was investigated. Results showed that the potassium and phosphorus did not affect the determination. of other trace elements. There are not significant differences in trace elemental contents for the eleven northeast China soybeans.

Major element, trace element, and Sr, Nd and Pb isotope studies of Cenozoic basalts from the South China Sea

The whole rock K-Ar ages of basalts from the South China Sea basin vary from 3.8 to 7.9 Ma, which suggest that intra-plate volcanism after the cessation of spreading of the South China Sea (SCS) is comparable to that in adjacent regions around the SCS, i.e., Leiqiong Peninsula, northern margin of the SCS, Indochina block, and so on. Based on detailed petrographic studies, we selected many fresh basaltic rocks and measured their major element, trace element, and Sr-Nd-Pb isotope compositions. Geochemical characteristics of major element and trace element show that these basaltic rocks belong to alkali basalt magma series, and are similar to OIB-type basalt. The extent of partial melting of mantle rock in source region is very low, and magma may experience crystallization differentiation and cumulation during the ascent to or storing in the high-level magma chamber. Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic data of these basaltic rocks imply an inhomogeneous mantle below the South China Sea. The nature of magma origin has a two end-member mixing model, one is EM2 (Enriched Mantle 2) which may be originated from mantle plume, the other is DMM (Depleted MORB Mantle). Pb isotopic characteristics show the Dupal anomaly in the South China Sea, and combined with newly found Dupal anomaly at Gakkel ridge in Arctic Ocean, this implies that Dupal anomaly is not only limited to South Hemisphere. In variation diagrams among Sr, Nd and Pb, the origin nature of mantle below the SCS is similar to those below Leiqiong peninsula, northern margin of the SCS and Indochina peninsula, and is different from those below north and northeast China. This study provides geochemical constraints on Hainan mantle plume.

Evidence of a universal scaling relationship for leaf CO2 drawdown along an aridity gradient

The leaf carbon isotope ratio (δ13C) of C3 plants is inversely related to the drawdown of CO2 concentration during photosynthesis, which increases towards drier environments. We aimed to discriminate between the hypothesis of universal scaling, which predicts between-species responses of δ13C to aridity similar to within-species responses, and biotic homoeostasis, which predicts offsets in the δ13C of species occupying adjacent ranges. The Northeast China Transect spans 130–900 mm annual precipitation within a narrow latitude and temperature range. Leaves of 171 species were sampled at 33 sites along the transect (18 at ≥ 5 sites) for dry matter, carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content, specific leaf area (SLA) and δ13C. The δ13C of species generally followed a common relationship with the climatic moisture index (MI). Offsets between adjacent species were not observed. Trees and forbs diverged slightly at high MI. In C3 plants, δ13C predicted N per unit leaf area (Narea) better than MI. The δ13C of C4 plants was invariant with MI. SLA declined and Narea increased towards low MI in both C3 and C4 plants. The data are consistent with optimal stomatal regulation with respect to atmospheric dryness. They provide evidence for universal scaling of CO2 drawdown with aridity in C3 plants.

Zr- AND Ba-RICH MINERALS FROM THE PONTE NOVA ALKALINE MAFIC-ULTRAMAFIC MASSIF, SOUTHEASTERN BRAZIL: INDICATION OF AN ENRICHED MANTLE SOURCE

Zirconium- and Ba-rich minerals are found in gabbroic rocks from the Ponte Nova alkaline mafic-ultramafic massif in southeastern Brazil. The unusual mineralogical assemblage includes zirconolite, baddeleyite, Ba-rich alkali feldspar, and Ba- and Ti-rich biotite. Zirconolite of the Ponte Nova massif has higher levels of Zr (up to 1.172 apfu) than those registered in other terrestrial rocks and a prominent enrichment in the light rare-earth elements. Baddeleyite contains small quantities of Hf, Ti, and Fe. The Ba-rich alkali feldspar and Ba- and Ti-rich biotite contain up to 9.25 and 7.35 wt% BaO, respectively, and the biotite contains up to 12.01 wt% TiO(2). In the different intrusions of the Ponte Nova massif, such an unusual assemblage typifies the residual magma after the crystallization of clinopyroxene and olivine from previously enriched basanitic parental magma. The different trends of enrichments in REE and Th + U found for zirconolite of the intrusions of the Ponte Nova massif provide a better understanding of the variable degrees of enrichment of incompatible elements of the distinct gabbroic bodies. A lithospheric mantle source enriched in incompatible elements by the metasomatic action of volatile-rich fluids and with the presence of phlogopite or amphibole (or both) and other minor accessory phases could explain the presence of the Zr- and Ba-rich minerals in this gabbroic massif.