Routage adaptatif et stabilité dans les réseaux maillés sans fil

Grâce à leur flexibilité et à leur facilité d’installation, les réseaux maillés sans fil (WMNs) permettent un déploiement d’une infrastructure à faible coût. Ces réseaux étendent la couverture des réseaux filaires permettant, ainsi, une connexion n’importe quand et n’importe où. Toutefois, leur performance est dégradée par les interférences et la congestion. Ces derniers causent des pertes de paquets et une augmentation du délai de transmission d’une façon drastique. Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons au routage adaptatif et à la stabilité dans ce type de réseaux. Dans une première partie de la thèse, nous nous intéressons à la conception d’une métrique de routage et à la sélection des passerelles permettant d’améliorer la performance des WMNs. Dans ce contexte nous proposons un protocole de routage à la source basé sur une nouvelle métrique. Cette métrique permet non seulement de capturer certaines caractéristiques des liens tels que les interférences inter-flux et intra-flux, le taux de perte des paquets mais également la surcharge des passerelles. Les résultats numériques montrent que la performance de cette métrique est meilleure que celle des solutions proposées dans la littérature. Dans une deuxième partie de la thèse, nous nous intéressons à certaines zones critiques dans les WMNs. Ces zones se trouvent autour des passerelles qui connaissent une concentration plus élevé du trafic ; elles risquent de provoquer des interférences et des congestions. À cet égard, nous proposons un protocole de routage proactif et adaptatif basé sur l’apprentissage par renforcement et qui pénalise les liens de mauvaise qualité lorsqu’on s’approche des passerelles. Un chemin dont la qualité des liens autour d’une passerelle est meilleure sera plus favorisé que les autres chemins de moindre qualité. Nous utilisons l’algorithme de Q-learning pour mettre à jour dynamiquement les coûts des chemins, sélectionner les prochains nœuds pour faire suivre les paquets vers les passerelles choisies et explorer d’autres nœuds voisins. Les résultats numériques montrent que notre protocole distribué, présente de meilleurs résultats comparativement aux protocoles présentés dans la littérature. Dans une troisième partie de cette thèse, nous nous intéressons aux problèmes d’instabilité des réseaux maillés sans fil. En effet, l’instabilité se produit à cause des changements fréquents des routes qui sont causés par les variations instantanées des qualités des liens dues à la présence des interférences et de la congestion. Ainsi, après une analyse de l’instabilité, nous proposons d’utiliser le nombre de variations des chemins dans une table de routage comme indicateur de perturbation des réseaux et nous utilisons la fonction d’entropie, connue dans les mesures de l’incertitude et du désordre des systèmes, pour sélectionner les routes stables. Les résultats numériques montrent de meilleures performances de notre protocole en comparaison avec d’autres protocoles dans la littérature en termes de débit, délai, taux de perte des paquets et l’indice de Gini.

Channel Adaptive MAC Protocol with Traffic-Aware Distributed Power Management in Wireless Sensor Networks-Some Performance Issues

In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), neglecting the effects of varying channel quality can lead to an unnecessary wastage of precious battery resources and in turn can result in the rapid depletion of sensor energy and the partitioning of the network. Fairness is a critical issue when accessing a shared wireless channel and fair scheduling must be employed to provide the proper flow of information in a WSN. In this paper, we develop a channel adaptive MAC protocol with a traffic-aware dynamic power management algorithm for efficient packet scheduling and queuing in a sensor network, with time varying characteristics of the wireless channel also taken into consideration. The proposed protocol calculates a combined weight value based on the channel state and link quality. Then transmission is allowed only for those nodes with weights greater than a minimum quality threshold and nodes attempting to access the wireless medium with a low weight will be allowed to transmit only when their weight becomes high. This results in many poor quality nodes being deprived of transmission for a considerable amount of time. To avoid the buffer overflow and to achieve fairness for the poor quality nodes, we design a Load prediction algorithm. We also design a traffic aware dynamic power management scheme to minimize the energy consumption by continuously turning off the radio interface of all the unnecessary nodes that are not included in the routing path. By Simulation results, we show that our proposed protocol achieves a higher throughput and fairness besides reducing the delay

Impact of transmission errors in enhanced relay-enabled distributed coordination function

This paper analyzes the performance of Enhanced relay-enabled Distributed Coordination Function (ErDCF) for wireless ad hoc networks under transmission errors. The idea of ErDCF is to use high data rate nodes to work as relays for the low data rate nodes. ErDCF achieves higher throughput and reduces energy consumption compared to IEEE 802.11 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) in an ideal channel environment. However, there is a possibility that this expected gain may decrease in the presence of transmission errors. In this work, we modify the saturation throughput model of ErDCF to accurately reflect the impact of transmission errors under different rate combinations. It turns out that the throughput gain of ErDCF can still be maintained under reasonable link quality and distance.

Analysis of enhanced relay-enabled distributed coordination function under transmission errors

This paper analyzes the performance of enhanced relay-enabled distributed coordination function (ErDCF) for wireless ad hoc networks under transmission errors. The idea of ErDCF is to use high data rate nodes to work as relays for the low data rate nodes. ErDCF achieves higher throughput and reduces energy consumption compared to IEEE 802.11 distributed coordination function (DCF) in an ideal channel environment. However, there is a possibility that this expected gain may decrease in the presence of transmission errors. In this work, we modify the saturation throughput model of ErDCF to accurately reflect the impact of transmission errors under different rate combinations. It turns out that the throughput gain of ErDCF can still be maintained under reasonable link quality and distance.

Roteamento multicamada baseado em eficiência energética e qualidade de enlace para redes de sensores sem fio

A pesquisa apresentada nesta dissertação descreve a elaboração de um protocolo de roteamento para aplicações de Redes de Sensores Sem Fio (RSSF) em cidade inteligentes com forte restrição de energia e alta densidade de nodos. Através do estudo dos principais objetivos da comunicação de dados e do levantamento do estado-da-arte sobre os protocolos de roteamento e tecnologias para RSSF, a proposta contempla requisitos como: vazão de dados, confiabilidade de entrega e eficiência energética. A pesquisa apresenta em detalhes o protocolo AODV (Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector), bem como sua relevância no contexto de RSSF devido a sua popularidade entre as plataformas de dispositivos comercializados. Além disso, são apresentados protocolos derivados do AODV, e a ausência de uma proposta robusta capaz de contemplar os requisitos levantados. O protocolo REL (Routing by Energy and Link Quality) é o resultado da pesquisa levantada e a proposta de solução para roteamento plano sob demanda baseado em eficiência energética e qualidade de enlace para prover um roteamento escalável, capaz de realizar balanceamento de carga e prolongar o tempo de vida da rede. O protocolo REL foi avaliado através de simulação e tesbed, a fim de garantir validação da proposta em ambiente real de escala reduzida e simulado de alta densidade. Os resultados mostraram que o protocolo REL apresenta considerável melhoria de entrega de dados através da escolha de enlaces confiáveis de transmissão e menos suscetíveis a erro, além de moderado consumo de energia capaz de prolongar o tempo de vida da rede, evitando a saturação prematura de nodos.

An evolutionary approach to improve connectivity prediction in mobile wireless sensor networks

Connectivity is the basic factor for the proper operation of any wireless network. In a mobile wireless sensor network it is a challenge for applications and protocols to deal with connectivity problems, as links might get up and down frequently. In these scenarios, having knowledge of the node remaining connectivity time could both improve the performance of the protocols (e.g. handoff mechanisms) and save possible scarce nodes resources (CPU, bandwidth, and energy) by preventing unfruitful transmissions. The current paper provides a solution called Genetic Machine Learning Algorithm (GMLA) to forecast the remainder connectivity time in mobile environments. It consists in combining Classifier Systems with a Markov chain model of the RF link quality. The main advantage of using an evolutionary approach is that the Markov model parameters can be discovered on-the-fly, making it possible to cope with unknown environments and mobility patterns. Simulation results show that the proposal is a very suitable solution, as it overcomes the performance obtained by similar approaches.

High level methods for scene exploration

Virtual worlds exploration techniques are used in a wide variety of domains — from graph drawing to robot motion. This paper is dedicated to virtual world exploration techniques which have to help a human being to understand a 3D scene. An improved method of viewpoint quality estimation is presented in the paper, together with a new off-line method for automatic 3D scene exploration, based on a virtual camera. The automatic exploration method is working in two steps. In the first step, a set of “good” viewpoints is computed. The second step uses this set of points of view to compute a camera path around the scene. Finally, we define a notion of semantic distance between objects of the scene to improve the approach.

Context-aware Opportunistic Routing in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks Incorporating Node Mobility

Opportunistic routing (OR) employs a list of candi- dates to improve reliability of wireless transmission. However, list-based OR features restrict the freedom of opportunism, since only the listed nodes can compete for packet forwarding. Additionally, the list is statically generated based on a single metric prior to data transmission, which is not appropriate for mobile ad-hoc networks. This paper provides a thorough perfor- mance evaluation of a new protocol - Context-aware Opportunistic Routing (COR). The contributions of COR are threefold. First, it uses various types of context information simultaneously such as link quality, geographic progress, and residual energy of nodes to make routing decisions. Second, it allows all qualified nodes to participate in packet forwarding. Third, it exploits the relative mobility of nodes to further improve performance. Simulation results show that COR can provide efficient routing in mobile environments, and it outperforms existing solutions that solely rely on a single metric by nearly 20 - 40 %.

Assessment of a robust opportunistic routing for video transmission in dynamic topologies

Mobile multimedia ad hoc services run on dynamic topologies due to node mobility or failures and wireless channel impairments. A robust routing service must adapt to topology changes with the aim of recovering or maintaining the video quality level and reducing the impact of the user's experience. In those scenarios, beacon-less Opportunistic Routing (OR) increases the robustness by supporting routing decisions in a completely distributed manner based on protocol-specific characteristics. However, the existing beacon-less OR approaches do not efficiently combine multiple metrics for forwarding selection, which cause higher packet loss rate, and consequently reduce the video quality level. In this paper, we assess the robustness and reliability of our recently developed OR protocol under node failures, called cross-layer Link quality and Geographical-aware OR protocol (LinGO). Simulation results show that LinGO achieves multimedia dissemination with QoE support and robustness in scenarios with dynamic topologies.

Opportunistic Routing for Multi-flow Video Dissemination over Flying Ad-Hoc Networks

A reliable and robust routing service for Flying Ad-Hoc Networks (FANETs) must be able to adapt to topology changes. User experience on watching live video sequences must also be satisfactory even in scenarios with buffer overflow and high packet loss ratio. In this paper, we introduce a Cross-layer Link quality and Geographical-aware beaconless opportunistic routing protocol (XLinGO). It enhances the transmission of simultaneous multiple video flows over FANETs by creating and keeping reliable persistent multi-hop routes. XLinGO considers a set of cross-layer and human-related information for routing decisions, as performance metrics and Quality of Experience (QoE). Performance evaluation shows that XLinGO achieves multimedia dissemination with QoE support and robustness in a multi-hop, multi-flow, and mobile network environments.

CAOR: Context-aware Adaptive Opportunistic Routing in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks

Opportunistic routing (OR) employs a list of candidates to improve wireless transmission reliability. However, conventional list-based OR restricts the freedom of opportunism, since only the listed nodes are allowed to compete for packet forwarding. Additionally, the list is generated statically based on a single network metric prior to data transmission, which is not appropriate for mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs). In this paper, we propose a novel OR protocol - Context-aware Adaptive Opportunistic Routing (CAOR) for MANETs. CAOR abandons the idea of candidate list and it allows all qualified nodes to participate in packet transmission. CAOR forwards packets by simultaneously exploiting multiple cross-layer context information, such as link quality, geographic progress, energy, and mobility.With the help of the Analytic Hierarchy Process theory, CAOR adjusts the weights of context information based on their instantaneous values to adapt the protocol behavior at run-time. Moreover, CAOR uses an active suppression mechanism to reduce packet duplication. Simulation results show that CAOR can provide efficient routing in highly mobile environments. The adaptivity feature of CAOR is also validated.

Adaptive Beaconless Opportunistic Routing for Multimedia Distribution

User experience on watching live videos must be satisfactory even under the inuence of different network conditions and topology changes, such as happening in Flying Ad-Hoc Networks (FANETs). Routing services for video dissemination over FANETs must be able to adapt routing decisions at runtime to meet Quality of Experience (QoE) requirements. In this paper, we introduce an adaptive beaconless opportunistic routing protocol for video dissemination over FANETs with QoE support, by taking into account multiple types of context information, such as link quality, residual energy, buffer state, as well as geographic information and node mobility in a 3D space. The proposed protocol takes into account Bayesian networks to define weight vectors and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to adjust the degree of importance for the context information based on instantaneous values. It also includes a position prediction to monitor the distance between two nodes in order to detect possible route failure.

Air pollution data classification by SOM Neural Network

Over the last ten years, Salamanca has been considered among the most polluted cities in México. This paper presents a Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) Neural Network application to classify pollution data and automatize the air pollution level determination for Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) in Salamanca. Meteorological parameters are well known to be important factors contributing to air quality estimation and prediction. In order to observe the behavior and clarify the influence of wind parameters on the SO2 concentrations a SOM Neural Network have been implemented along a year. The main advantages of the SOM is that it allows to integrate data from different sensors and provide readily interpretation results. Especially, it is powerful mapping and classification tool, which others information in an easier way and facilitates the task of establishing an order of priority between the distinguished groups of concentrations depending on their need for further research or remediation actions in subsequent management steps. The results show a significative correlation between pollutant concentrations and some environmental variables.

A 3D multi-objective optimization planning algorithm for wireless sensor networks

The complexity of planning a wireless sensor network is dependent on the aspects of optimization and on the application requirements. Even though Murphy's Law is applied everywhere in reality, a good planning algorithm will assist the designers to be aware of the short plates of their design and to improve them before the problems being exposed at the real deployment. A 3D multi-objective planning algorithm is proposed in this paper to provide solutions on the locations of nodes and their properties. It employs a developed ray-tracing scheme for sensing signal and radio propagation modelling. Therefore it is sensitive to the obstacles and makes the models of sensing coverage and link quality more practical compared with other heuristics that use ideal unit-disk models. The proposed algorithm aims at reaching an overall optimization on hardware cost, coverage, link quality and lifetime. Thus each of those metrics are modelled and normalized to compose a desirability function. Evolutionary algorithm is designed to efficiently tackle this NP-hard multi-objective optimization problem. The proposed algorithm is applicable for both indoor and outdoor 3D scenarios. Different parameters that affect the performance are analyzed through extensive experiments; two state-of-the-art algorithms are rebuilt and tested with the same configuration as that of the proposed algorithm. The results indicate that the proposed algorithm converges efficiently within 600 iterations and performs better than the compared heuristics.

Análisis e implementación de estrategias de rutado dinámico basado en CTP para redes de sensores inalámbricas multi-salto

Una red de sensores inalámbrica es un conjunto de dispositivos electrónicos que se comunican entre sí sin la necesidad de una infraestructura, recogiendo información del entorno en el que han sido desplegados, procesándola y transmitiéndola hasta una estación base mediante saltos sucesivos entre los nodos de la red (multi-salto). Durante las dos últimas décadas, este campo ha sido muy desarrollado en la comunidad científica, debido a las ventajas que ofrece el despliegue de una red inalámbrica en un entorno con el fin de estudiarlo y/o controlarlo. La ausencia de una infraestructura, junto con el reducido tamaño de los nodos, permite este estudio sin que dicho entorno se vea significativamente afectado por factores externos como pueda ser la presencia humana, permitiendo además aumentar el número de nodos que componen la red o cambiar la posición de algunos de ellos sin que sea necesario reconfigurarla manualmente. El principal reto que presentan las redes de sensores inalámbricas es su autonomía. En general, se requiere que un nodo tenga la capacidad de funcionar durante largos períodos de tiempo (varios meses o incluso un año) antes de que su batería se agote. Esto hace de la gestión del consumo energético un aspecto crítico en el diseño de la red y sus nodos. En el presente trabajo se busca optimizar este consumo mediante la gestión del proceso de comunicación y enrutamiento de la red. Con este fin, se implementa el protocolo CTP (Collection Tree Protocol) en la plataforma Cookies desarrollada en el Centro de Electrónica Industrial (CEI) de la UPM. CTP es un protocolo de rutado centrado en los datos, que utiliza una topología en árbol, con el nodo coordinador o estación base como raíz del mismo, para la transmisión de la información desde los sensores hasta la estación base. Además, no utiliza direcciones predeterminadas, dotando a la red de la flexibilidad requerida para hacer frente a inconsistencias y/o variaciones en la densidad y tamaño de la red. La ruta escogida se basa en un gradiente de rutado decreciente, ETX (Expected Transmission Count), que representa la calidad de la conexión entre un nodo y su nodo padre. Este gradiente de enrutamiento se obtiene mediante una conversión directa a partir del LQI (Link Quality Indication) definido por el estándar IEEE 802.15.4. Esta conversión directa supone una aproximación utilizando valores umbral del LQI. Un nodo escogerá el siguiente salto que realizará el paquete a enviar seleccionando de entre sus vecinos a aquél que tenga el menor ETX, evitando de esta forma la aparición de bucles. Otro de los aspectos que supone un gran consumo es el proceso de mantenimiento de la estructura de la red, pues requiere el envío periódico de señales de control o beacons a lo largo de toda la red. El protocolo CTP aprovecha el algoritmo de goteo (Trickle Algorithm), para gestionar el mantenimiento: durante la formación de la red y cuando se detecte alguna inconsistencia, se incrementa la frecuencia de emisión de los beacons, permitiendo así una rápida propagación de las señales de control para crear o reparar las conexiones entre los nodos. En cambio, cuando la topología de la red es estable, esta frecuencia de emisión se reduce significativamente, limitándose a asegurar que la topología se mantiene estable y favoreciendo así el ahorro de energía.