954 resultados para Ecosystem processes
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The study of soil microbiota and their activities is central to the understanding of many ecosystem processes such as decomposition and nutrient cycling. The collection of microbiological data from soils generally involves several sequential steps of sampling, pretreatment and laboratory measurements. The reliability of results is dependent on reliable methods in every step. The aim of this thesis was to critically evaluate some central methods and procedures used in soil microbiological studies in order to increase our understanding of the factors that affect the measurement results and to provide guidance and new approaches for the design of experiments. The thesis focuses on four major themes: 1) soil microbiological heterogeneity and sampling, 2) storage of soil samples, 3) DNA extraction from soil, and 4) quantification of specific microbial groups by the most-probable-number (MPN) procedure. Soil heterogeneity and sampling are discussed as a single theme because knowledge on spatial (horizontal and vertical) and temporal variation is crucial when designing sampling procedures. Comparison of adjacent forest, meadow and cropped field plots showed that land use has a strong impact on the degree of horizontal variation of soil enzyme activities and bacterial community structure. However, regardless of the land use, the variation of microbiological characteristics appeared not to have predictable spatial structure at 0.5-10 m. Temporal and soil depth-related patterns were studied in relation to plant growth in cropped soil. The results showed that most enzyme activities and microbial biomass have a clear decreasing trend in the top 40 cm soil profile and a temporal pattern during the growing season. A new procedure for sampling of soil microbiological characteristics based on stratified sampling and pre-characterisation of samples was developed. A practical example demonstrated the potential of the new procedure to reduce the analysis efforts involved in laborious microbiological measurements without loss of precision. The investigation of storage of soil samples revealed that freezing (-20 °C) of small sample aliquots retains the activity of hydrolytic enzymes and the structure of the bacterial community in different soil matrices relatively well whereas air-drying cannot be recommended as a storage method for soil microbiological properties due to large reductions in activity. Freezing below -70 °C was the preferred method of storage for samples with high organic matter content. Comparison of different direct DNA extraction methods showed that the cell lysis treatment has a strong impact on the molecular size of DNA obtained and on the bacterial community structure detected. An improved MPN method for the enumeration of soil naphthalene degraders was introduced as an alternative to more complex MPN protocols or the DNA-based quantification approach. The main advantage of the new method is the simple protocol and the possibility to analyse a large number of samples and replicates simultaneously.
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The rapid disruption of tropical forests probably imperils global biodiversity more than any other contemporary phenomenon(1-3). With deforestation advancing quickly, protected areas are increasingly becoming final refuges for threatened species and natural ecosystem processes. However, many protected areas in the tropics are themselves vulnerable to human encroachment and other environmental stresses(4-9). As pressures mount, it is vital to know whether existing reserves can sustain their biodiversity. A critical constraint in addressing this question has been that data describing a broad array of biodiversity groups have been unavailable for a sufficiently large and representative sample of reserves. Here we present a uniquely comprehensive data set on changes over the past 20 to 30 years in 31 functional groups of species and 21 potential drivers of environmental change, for 60 protected areas stratified across the world's major tropical regions. Our analysis reveals great variation in reserve `health': about half of all reserves have been effective or performed passably, but the rest are experiencing an erosion of biodiversity that is often alarmingly widespread taxonomically and functionally. Habitat disruption, hunting and forest-product exploitation were the strongest predictors of declining reserve health. Crucially, environmental changes immediately outside reserves seemed nearly as important as those inside in determining their ecological fate, with changes inside reserves strongly mirroring those occurring around them. These findings suggest that tropical protected areas are often intimately linked ecologically to their surrounding habitats, and that a failure to stem broad-scale loss and degradation of such habitats could sharply increase the likelihood of serious biodiversity declines.
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Large animals are disproportionately likely to go extinct, and the effects of this on ecosystem processes are unclear. Megaherbivores (weighing over 1000kg) are thought to be particularly effective seed dispersers, yet only a few plant species solely or predominantly adapted for dispersal by megaherbivores have been identified. The reasons for this paradox may be elucidated by examining the ecology of so-called megafaunal fruiting species in Asia, where large-fruited species have been only sparsely researched. We conducted focal tree watches, camera trapping, fruit ageing trials, dung seed counts and germination trials to understand the ecology of Dillenia indica, a large-fruited species thought to be elephant-dispersed, in a tropical moist forest (Buxa Tiger Reserve, India). We find that the initial hardness of the fruit of D.indica ensures that its small (6mm) seeds will primarily be consumed and dispersed by elephants and perhaps other megaherbivores. Elephants removed 63.3% of camera trap-monitored fruits taken by frugivores. If the fruit of D.indica is not removed by a large animal, the seeds of D.indica become available to successively smaller frugivores as its fruits soften. Seeds from both hard and soft fruits are able to germinate, meaning these smaller frugivores may provide a mechanism for dispersal without megaherbivores.Synthesis. Dillenia indica's strategy for dispersal allows it to realize the benefits of dispersal by megaherbivores without becoming fully reliant on these less abundant species. This risk-spreading dispersal behaviour suggests D.indica will be able to persist even if its megafaunal disperser becomes extinct.
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Logging and hunting are two key direct threats to the survival of wildlife in the tropics, and also disrupt important ecosystem processes. We investigated the impacts of these two factors on the different stages of the seed dispersal cycle, including abundance of plants and their dispersers and dispersal of seeds and recruitment, in a tropical forest in north-east India. We focused on hornbills, which are important seed dispersers in these forests, and their food tree species. We compared abundances of hornbill food tree species in a site with high logging and hunting pressures (heavily disturbed) with a site that had no logging and relatively low levels of hunting (less disturbed) to understand logging impacts on hornbill food tree abundance. We compared hornbill abundances across these two sites. We, then, compared the scatter-dispersed seed arrival of five large-seeded tree species and the recruitment of four of those species. Abundances of hornbill food trees that are preferentially targeted by logging were two times higher in the less disturbed site as compared to the heavily disturbed site while that of hornbills was 22 times higher. The arrival of scatter-dispersed seeds was seven times higher in the less disturbed site. Abundances of recruits of two tree species were significantly higher in the less disturbed site. For another species, abundances of younger recruits were significantly lower while that of older recruits were higher in the heavily disturbed site. Our findings suggest that logging reduces food plant abundance for an important frugivore-seed disperser group, while hunting diminishes disperser abundances, with an associated reduction in seed arrival and altered recruitment of animal-dispersed tree species in the disturbed site. Based on our results, we present a conceptual model depicting the relationships and pathways between vertebrate-dispersed trees, their dispersers, and the impacts of hunting and logging on these pathways.
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Large animal species are prone to local extirpation, but ecologists cannot yet predict how the loss of megaherbivores affects ecosystem processes such as seed dispersal. Few studies have compared the quantity and quality of seed dispersal by megaherbivores versus alternative frugivores in the wild, particularly for plant species with fruit easily consumed by many frugivorous species. In a disturbed tropical moist forest in India, we examine whether megaherbivores are a major frugivore of two tree species with easily edible, mammal-dispersed fruit. We quantify the relative fruit removal rates of Artocarpus chaplasha and Careya arborea, by the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and alternative dispersers. Through focal watches and camera trapping, we found the elephant to be amongst the top three frugivores for each tree species. Furthermore, seed transects under A. chaplasha show that arboreal frugivores discard seeds only a short distance from the parental tree, underscoring the elephant's role as a long-distance disperser. Our data provide unprecedented support for an old notion: megaherbivores may be key dispersers for a broad set of mammal-dispersed fruiting species, and not just fruit inaccessible to smaller frugivores. As such, the elephant may be particularly important for the functional ecology of the disturbed forests it still inhabits across tropical Asia.
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Over the past four decades, the state of Hawaii has developed a system of eleven Marine Life Conservation Districts (MLCDs) to conserve and replenish marine resources around the state. Initially established to provide opportunities for public interaction with the marine environment, these MLCDs vary in size, habitat quality, and management regimes, providing an excellent opportunity to test hypotheses concerning marine protected area (MPA) design and function using multiple discreet sampling units. NOAA/NOS/NCCOS/Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Team developed digital benthic habitat maps for all MLCD and adjacent habitats. These maps were used to evaluate the efficacy of existing MLCDs for biodiversity conservation and fisheries replenishment, using a spatially explicit stratified random sampling design. Coupling the distribution of habitats and species habitat affinities using GIS technology elucidates species habitat utilization patterns at scales that are commensurate with ecosystem processes and is useful in defining essential fish habitat and biologically relevant boundaries for MPAs. Analysis of benthic cover validated the a priori classification of habitat types and provided justification for using these habitat strata to conduct stratified random sampling and analyses of fish habitat utilization patterns. Results showed that the abundance and distribution of species and assemblages exhibited strong correlations with habitat types. Fish assemblages in the colonized and uncolonized hardbottom habitats were found to be most similar among all of the habitat types. Much of the macroalgae habitat sampled was macroalgae growing on hard substrate, and as a result showed similarities with the other hardbottom assemblages. The fish assemblages in the sand habitats were highly variable but distinct from the other habitat types. Management regime also played an important role in the abundance and distribution of fish assemblages. MLCDs had higher values for most fish assemblage characteristics (e.g. biomass, size, diversity) compared with adjacent fished areas and Fisheries Management Areas (FMAs) across all habitat types. In addition, apex predators and other targeted resources species were more abundant and larger in the MLCDs, illustrating the effectiveness of these closures in conserving fish populations. Habitat complexity, quality, size and level of protection from fishing were important determinates of MLCD effectiveness with respect to their associated fish assemblages. (PDF contains 217 pages)
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The loss of species is known to have significant effects on ecosystem functioning, but only recently has it been recognized that species loss might rival the effects of other forms of environmental change on ecosystem processes. There is a need for experimental studies that explicitly manipulate species richness and environmental factors concurrently to determine their relative impacts on key ecosystem processes such as plant litter decomposition. It is crucial to understand what factors affect the rate of plant litter decomposition and the relative magnitude of such effects because the rate at which plant litter is lost and transformed to other forms of organic and inorganic carbon determines the capacity for carbon storage in ecosystems and the rate at which greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide are outgassed. Here we compared how an increase in water temperature of 5 degrees C and loss of detritivorous invertebrate and plant litter species affect decomposition rates in a laboratory experiment simulating stream conditions. Like some prior studies, we found that species identity, rather than species richness per se, is a key driver of decomposition, but additionally we showed that the loss of particular species can equal or exceed temperature change in its impact on decomposition. Our results indicate that the loss of particular species can be as important a driver of decomposition as substantial temperature change, but also that predicting the relative consequences of species loss and other forms of environmental change on decomposition requires knowledge of assemblages and their constituent species' ecology and ecophysiology.
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The goal of the Puget Sound Nearshore Ecosystem Restoration Project (PSNERP) is to improve system-wide functionality of nearshorei ecosystem processes. To achieve that goal, PSNERP plans to strategically restore nearshore sites throughout Puget Sound. PSNERP scientists are assessing changes to the nearshore, and will recommend an environmentally strategic restoration portfolio. Yet, PSNERP also needs stakeholder input to design a socially strategic portfolio. This research investigates the values and preferences of stakeholders in the Whidbey Sub-Basin of Puget Sound to help PSNERP be both socially and environmentally strategic. This investigation may be repeated in the six other Puget Sound Sub-Basins. The results will guide restoration portfolio design and future stakeholder involvement activities. This study examines four areas of stakeholder values and preferences: 1) beliefs about the causes, solutions, and severity of nearshore problems; 2) priorities for nearshore features, shoreforms, developments, and restoration objectives; 3) thoughts about ecosystem servicesiii and trade-offs among them; and 4) visions of a future, restored Puget Sound nearshore and the role of science in attaining this vision. The study is framed by two hypotheses from the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF), which suggests that groups of policy advocates form around shared “policy core beliefs” which can transcend traditional categories of stakeholders.(PDF contains 3 pages)
Resumo:
The loss of species is known to have significant effects on ecosystem functioning, but only recently has it been recognized that species loss might rival the effects of other forms of environmental change on ecosystem processes. There is a need for experimental studies that explicitly manipulate species richness and environmental factors concurrently to determine their relative impacts on key ecosystem processes such as plant litter decomposition. It is crucial to understand what factors affect the rate of plant litter decomposition and the relative magnitude of such effects because the rate at which plant litter is lost and transformed to other forms of organic and inorganic carbon determines the capacity for carbon storage in ecosystems and the rate at which greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide are outgassed. Here we compared how an increase in water temperature of 5 degrees C and loss of detritivorous invertebrate and plant litter species affect decomposition rates in a laboratory experiment simulating stream conditions. Like some prior studies, we found that species identity, rather than species richness per se, is a key driver of decomposition, but additionally we showed that the loss of particular species can equal or exceed temperature change in its impact on decomposition. Our results indicate that the loss of particular species can be as important a driver of decomposition as substantial temperature change, but also that predicting the relative consequences of species loss and other forms of environmental change on decomposition requires knowledge of assemblages and their constituent species' ecology and ecophysiology
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Espécies invasoras têm transformado muitos ecossistemas através de mudanças na estrutura das comunidades, cadeia trófica, ciclagem de nutrientes e sedimentação. A competição interespecífica ocorre frequentemente entre espécies nativas e introduzidas, e constitui um processo determinante na eficiência da invasão. Essa competição pode acarretar em alterações no papel das espécies dentro da comunidade e alterar os processos ecossistêmicos. Os corais Tubastraea coccinea e T. tagusensis invadiram o Brasil na década de 80, e são favorecidos pela carência de predadores na biota local, sendo a esponja Desmapsamma anchorata o único organismo identificado como inibidor do crescimento e desenvolvimento desses corais. O presente estudo tem como objetivo: 1) Quantificar e classificar em cinco categorias de interação: sobrecrescimento, contorno, contato periférico, encontro com até cinco cm de distância e encontro de cinco ate dez cm de distância entre as esponjas e Tubastraea spp. na Baía de Ilha Grande, temporalmente; 2) Descrever os mecanismos utilizados na competição entre a esponja D. anchorata e os corais Tubastraea (físicos ou químicos?); 3) Descrever a dinâmica do crescimento da esponja D. anchorata com relação a fatores abióticos. Foram encontradas 37 espécies de esponjas interagindo com Tubastraea spp, sendo que apenas 12 dessas espécies interagiram mais de 10 % no total de interações. O contato periférico e a interação de até 5 cm de distância foram os tipos de interação mais encontrados. D. anchorata foi a esponja que mais teve o contato de sobreposição. Não foi observado efeitos significativos dos extratos de Tubastraea spp. sobre D. anchorata e nem dos extratos de D. anchorata sobre o metabolismo dos corais. A sobreposição foi a principal ferramenta utilizada na defesa contra o competidor, enquanto que os corais Tubastraea spp. utilizaram defesa física e provavelmente química. D. anchorata não apresentou relação entre seu crescimento e os fatores abióticos medidos e mostrou crescimento em taxas diferentes durante os meses analisados, com um pico no mês de setembro diminuindo até a sua morte, no mês de dezembro. No caso da competição entre os invasores Tubastraea spp. e a esponja D. anchorata, a hipótese de controle biótico não pode ser levada em consideração, já que os corais Tubastraea spp. têm demonstrado capacidade de se expandir e colonizar novos locais muito rapidamente. Porém, como observado no presente estudo, e em outros trabalhos, pontualmente a esponja vence na competição com os corais invasores
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Atualmente a maior ameaça à integridade de ecossistemas aquáticos reside nas ações antrópicas, que através de alterações na cobertura vegetal ripária, atingem todos os compartimentos dos sistemas lóticos, alterando a estrutura física, química e biológica do rio e os padrões de ligação entre ecossistemas terrestres e aquáticos. A importância dos macroinvertebrados fragmentadores ainda não é bem conhecida nos trópicos. Eles podem contribuir para a decomposição de folhas em córregos, que é um processo fundamental para o fluxo de energia em rios de pequeno porte. Os processos de decomposição e produção secundária de macroinvertebrados aquáticos nos ecossistemas lóticos são intimamente relacionados com o aporte da vegetação terrestre, e podem ser sensíveis às alterações na cobertura vegetal ripária. Os objetivos desse estudo foram avaliar: (a) quais mudanças o desmatamento pode causar nos parâmetros físicos e químicos de rios; (b) os efeitos do desmatamento sobre a estrutura da comunidade de macroinvertebrados bentônicos associados às folhas, (c) nos processos ecossistêmicos, como decomposição foliar e produção secundária, e (d) a associação entre produção secundária de fragmentadores e decomposição foliar. O estudo foi realizado em 27 locais distribuídos em quatro córregos (7-8 locais por rio) de segunda-terceira ordem e que apresentavam um gradiente de desmatamento. Para estimar a taxa de decomposição, cinco pacotes de folha foram imersos em cada um dos pontos. Um pacote de folha foi retirado de cada ponto após 2, 7, 15 e 28 dias de imersão. O quinto pacote de folha foi retirado no 37 dia de imersão para as estimativas de produção secundária, biodiversidade e a diversidade funcional de insetos aquáticos. As concentrações de amônio aumentaram e a riqueza de espécies de insetos aquáticos e de EPTs (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera e Trichoptera) dos pacotes de folhas diminuíram com o aumento do desmatamento. As taxas de decomposição diminuíram com o aumento do desmatamento. Os dados sugerem que a perda de vegetação ripária pela conversão em agropecuária teve impacto em parâmetros químicos e bióticos, tanto na estrutura da comunidade de macroinvertebrados quanto no funcionamento do ecossistema. Concluímos que a restauração e preservação da mata ripária deve ser um foco central das estratégias de gestão de ecossistemas lóticos para assegurar que os processos ecossistêmicos e a estrutura das comunidades em bacias hidrográficas estejam agindo como provedores dos serviços ambientais esperados.
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This synthesis presents a science overview of the major forest management Issues involved in the recovery of anadromous salmonids affected by timber harvest in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. The issues involve the components of ecosystem-based watershed management and how best to implement them, including how to: Design buffer zones to protect fish habitat while enabling economic timber production; Implement effective Best Management Practices (BMPs) to prevent nonpoint-source pollution; Develop watershed-level procedures across property boundaries to prevent cumulative impacts; Develop restoration procedures to contribute to recovery of ecosystem processes; and Enlist support of private landowners in watershed planning, protection, and restoration. Buffer zones, BMPs, cumulative impact prevention, and restoration are essential elements of what must be a comprehensive approach to habitat protection and restoration applied at the watershed level within a larger context of resource concerns in the river basin, species status under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), and regional environmental and economic issues (Fig. ES. 1). This synthesis 1) reviews salmonid habitat requirements and potential effects of logging; 2) describes the technical foundation of forest practices and restoration; 3) analyzes current federal and non-federal forest practices; and 4) recommends required elements of comprehensive watershed management for recovery of anadromous salmonids.
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Using a 10-yr time-series data set, we analyzed the effects of two severe droughts on water-quality and ecosystem processes in a temperate, eutrophic estuary (Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina). During the droughts, dissolved inorganic nitrogen concentrations were on average 46–68% lower than the long-term mean due to reduced riverine input. Phytoplankton productivity and biomass were slightly below average for most of the estuary during a spring–autumn drought in 2002, but were dramatically lower than average throughout the estuary during an autumn–winter drought in 2007–2008. Droughts affected upper trophic levels through alteration of both habitat condition (i.e., bottom-water dissolved oxygen levels) and food availability. Bottomwater dissolved oxygen levels were near or slightly above average during the 2002 drought and during summer 2007. Concomitant with these modest improvements in bottom-water oxygen condition, fish kills were greatly reduced relative to the long-term average. Low-oxygen bottom-water conditions were more pronounced during summer 2008 in the latter stages of the 2007–2008 drought, and mesozooplankton abundances were eight-fold lower in summer 2008 than during nondrought years. Below-average mesozooplankton abundances persisted for well over 1 yr beyond cessation of the drought. Significant fish kills were observed in summer 2008 and 2009, perhaps due to the synergistic effects of hypoxia and reduced food availability. These results indicate that droughts can exert both ephemeral and prolonged multiyear influence on estuarine ecosystem processes and provide a glimpse into the future, when many regions of the world are predicted to face increased drought frequency and severity due to climate change.
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羊草草原、大针茅草原和草甸草原是内蒙古温带典型草原地区的三种主要植被类型,本文以此为研究对象,应用时空替代、温室、网室、自然降水接移、养分添加等多种方法模拟未来可能发生的气候变化,研究了这些变化对上述草原植物群落和生态系统过程的直接和间接影响。主要研究结果如下: 1. 气候变暖及其诱导的土壤养分释放速率增加对植物群落有明显的影响,表现在种种植物群落在高度、盖度、密度和生物量等都有不同程度的变化。说明我国温带草原生态系统对气候变化反应敏感。 2. 在群落说平上,气候变暖直接或间接使地上生物量提高17%~90%,但在种群水平,不同种群对模拟气候变化的响应具有很强的个性,而不具普遍性,不同种群反应的大小、方向不同。因此由在不同群落进行研究得出的推论只有部分是可能的,并且即使观测到相类似的反应,它们内在的机制也很可能是不同的。 3. 气候变化显著地影响着凋落物的分解特征。但不同的气候变化情景下,凋落物分解过程的响应不同。在温度升高降水变化不大或升高的情景下,凋落物的分解速率将加快;在气温上升,降水明显下降的情景下,凋落物的分解速率将降低。 4. 草甸草原土壤碳素释放过程和氮素矿化过程对气候变暖有明显的响应。气候变暖将促进土壤有机碳的释放,使草甸草原土壤成为碳源,同时加速氮素矿化速率,在一定程度上提高土壤有效养分的浓度。 5. 在中小尺度上,海拔样带所是应用时空替代原理,研究陆地生态系统与气候变化的理想平台,生物量是综合反应气候变化对土壤-植物系统影响的敏感指标。 6. 草原土壤有机碳和氮在2m~3m的小尺度上存在空间自相关性,其空间自相关尺度受人类活动的影响。
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EXTRACT (SEE PDF FOR FULL ABSTRACT): Climatological events that disturb a landscape are important components in ecosystem processes. Modern ecosystem management plans now hope to incorporate knowledge of the spatial distribution and frequency of disturbance climate. The following describes a few analytic tools developed to help managers include disturbance climate in an ecosystem management plan for areas in the Columbia River Basin of the northwestern United States.