Effects of Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition on the Herbaceous Layer of a Central Appalachian Hardwood Forest

Additions of nitrogen (N) have been shown to alter species diversity of plant communities, with most experimental studies having been carried out in communities dominated by herbaceous species. We examined seasonal and inter-annual patterns of change in the herbaceous layer of two watersheds of a central Appalachian hardwood forest that differed in experimental treatment. This study was carried out at the Fernow Experimental Forest, West Virginia, using two adjacent watersheds: WS4 (mature, second-growth hardwood stand, untreated reference), and WS3. Seven circular 0.04-ha sample plots were established in eachwatershed to represent its full range of elevation and slope aspect. The herbaceous layer was sampled by identifying and visually estimating cover (%) of all vascular plants. Sampling was carried out in mid-July of 1991 and repeated at approximately the same time in 1992. In 1994, these same plots were sampled each month fromMay to October. Seasonal patterns of herb layer dynamics were assessed for the complete 1994 data set, whereasinter-annual variability was based on plot data from 1991, 1992, and the July sample of 1994. There were nosignificant differences between watersheds for any sample year for any of the other herb layer characteristics measured, including herb layer cover, species richness, evenness, and diversity. Cover on WS4 decreased significantly from 1991 to 1992, followed by no change to 1994. By contrast, herb layer cover did not varysignificantly across years on WS3. Cover of the herbaceous layer of both watersheds increased from early in the growing season to the middle of the growing season, decreasing thereafter, with no significant differencesbetween WS3 and WS4 for any of the monthly cover means in 1994. Similar seasonal patterns found for herblayer cover—and lack of significant differences between watersheds—were also evident for species diversityand richness. By contrast, there was little seasonal change in herb layer species evenness, which was nearlyidentical between watersheds for all months except October. Seasonal patterns for individual species/speciesgroups were closely similar between watersheds, especially for Viola rotundifolia and Viola spp. Species richnessand species diversity were linearly related to herb layer cover for both WS3 and WS4, suggesting that spatialand temporal increases in cover were more related to recruitment of herb layer species than to growth of existingspecies. Results of this study indicate that there have been negligible responses of the herb layer to 6 yr of additions to WS3.

Effects of Harvesting on Herbaceous Layer Diversity of a Central Appalachian Hardwood Forest

Clearcutting is a common harvesting practice in many eastern hardwood forests. Among the vegetation strata of these forests, the herbaceous layer is potentially the most sensitive in its response to harvest-mediated disturbances and has the highest species diversity. Thus, it is important to understand the response of herbaceous layer diversity to forest harvesting. Previous work on clearcut and mature stands at the Fernow Experimental Forest (FEF), West Virginia, has shown that, although, harvesting did not alter appreciably herbaceous layer cover, it influenced the relationship of cover to biotic and abiotic factors, such as tree density and soil nutrients, respectively. The purpose of this study was to examine the response of species diversity of the herbaceous layer to harvesting at FEF. Fifteen circular, 0.04 ha sample plots were established in each of four watersheds (60 plots in total) representing two stand age categories: two watersheds with 20 years even-age stands following clearcutting and two watersheds with mature second growth stands. All woody stems ≥2.5 cm diameter at breast height were identified, tallied, and measured for diameter. The herbaceous layer was sampled by identifying all vascular plants ≤1 m in height and estimating cover for each species in each of 10 (1 m2) circular sub-plots per sample plot (600 sub-plots total). Species diversity for each plot was calculated from herbaceous layer data using the ln-based Shannon Index (H′) equation. Ten stand and soil variables also were measured on each plot. Mean herbaceous layer cover for clearcut versus mature stands was 27.2±14.3% versus 20.2±8.1% (P>0.05), respectively and mean H′ was 1.67±0.42 versus 1.55±0.48 (P>0.05), respectively. Herbaceous layer diversity was negatively correlated with cation exchange capacity and extractable Ca and Mg in the mineral soil in clearcut stands. In contrast, herbaceous layer diversity was positively correlated with soil organic matter and clay content. Although, 20 years of recovery after clearcutting did not have significant effects on the species diversity of the herbaceous layer when examining stand age means alone, harvesting did appear to influence the spatial relationships between herbaceous layer diversity and biotic factors (e.g. tree density) and abiotic factors (e.g. soil nutrients).

Applications of LiDAR remote sensing of forest structure in the Upper Great Lakes region, USA

We used active remote sensing technology to characterize forest structure in a northern temperate forest on a landscape- and local-level in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Specifically, we used a form of active remote sensing called light detection and ranging (e.g., LiDAR) to aid in the depiction of current forest structural stages and total canopy gap area estimation. On a landscape-level, LiDAR data are shown not only to be a useful tool in characterizing forest structure, in both coniferous and deciduous forest cover types, but also as an effective basis for data-driven surrogates for classification of forest structure. On a local-level, LiDAR data are shown to be a benchmark reference point to evaluate field-based canopy gap area estimations, due to the highly accurate nature of such remotely sensed data. The application of LiDAR remote sensed data can help facilitate current and future sustainable forest management.

More efficient aboveground nitrogen use in more diverse Central European forest canopies

We hypothesized that biodiversity improves ecosystem functioning and services such as nutrient cycling because of increased complementarity. We examined N canopy budgets of 27 Central European forests of varying dominant tree species, stand density, and tree and shrub species diversity (Shannon index) in three study regions by quantifying bulk and fine particulate dry deposition and dissolved below canopy N fluxes. Average regional canopy N retention ranged from 16% to 51%, because of differences in the N status of the ecosystems. Canopy N budgets of coniferous forests differed from deciduous forest which we attribute to differences in biogeochemical N cycling, tree functional traits and canopy surface area. The canopy budgets of N were related to the Shannon index which explained 14% of the variance of the canopy budgets of N, suggesting complementary aboveground N use of trees and diverse understorey vegetation. The relationship between plant diversity and canopy N retention varied among regional site conditions and forest types. Our results suggest that the traditional view of belowground complementarity of nutrient uptake by roots in diverse plant communities can be transferred to foliar uptake in forest canopies.

Litter nutrients and retranslocation in a central African rain forest dominated by ectomycorrhizal trees

In the strongly seasonal, but annually very wet, parts of the tropics, low-water availability in the short dry season leads to a semi-deciduous forest, one which is also highly susceptible to nutrient loss from leaching in the long wet season. Patterns in litterfall were compared between forest with low (LEM) and high (HEM) abundances of ectomycorrhizal trees in Korup National Park, Cameroon, over 26 months in 1990–92. Leaf litter was sorted into 26 abundant species which included six ectomycorrhizal species, and of these three were the large grove-forming trees Microberlinia bisulcata, Tetraberlinia bifoliolata and Tetraberlinia moreliana. Larger-tree species shed their leaves with pronounced peaks in the dry season, whereas other species had either weaker dependence, showed several peaks per year, or were wet-season shedders. Although total annual litterfall differed little between forest types, in the HEM forest (dominated by M. bisulcata) the dry-season peak was more pronounced and earlier than that in the LEMforest. Species differed greatly in their mean leaf litterfall nutrient concentrations, with an approx. twofold range for nitrogen and phosphorus, and 2.5–3.5-fold for potassium, magnesium and calcium. In the dry season, LEM and HEM litter showed similar declines in P and N concentration, and increases in K and Mg; some species, especially M. bisculcata, showed strong dry-wet season differences. The concentration of P (but not N) was higher in the leaf litter of ectomycorrhizal than nonectomycorrhizal species. Retranslocation of N and P was lower among the ectomycorrhizal than nonectomycorrhizal species by approx. twofold. It is suggested that, within ectomycorrhizal groves on this soil low in P, a fast decomposition rate with minimal loss of mineralized P is possible due to the relatively high litter P not limiting the cycle at this stage, combined with an efficient recapture of released P by the surface organic layer of ectomycorrhizas and fine roots. This points to a feedback between two essential controlling steps (retranslocation and mineralization) in a tropical rain forest ecosystem dominated by ectomycorrhizal trees.

Seasonal change of oribatid mite communities (Acari, Oribatida) in three different types of microhabitats in an oak forest

Oribatid mites are one of the most abundant groups of the ground-dwelling mesofauna. They can be found in almost every terrestrial habitat all over the world and they are characterized by great species richness and great number of individuals. In spite of that not enough is known about their behaviour on community level and their spatial and temporal pattern in different habitats of the world. In our present study the seasonal behaviour of oribatid mite communities was analysed in three types of microhabitats in a temperate deciduous forest: in leaf litter, soil and moss. Samples were collected at a given site in a year and a half and the oribatid mite communities living there were studied on genus level along with the changes of meteorological factors characteristic of the area. The results show that corresponding to similar previous researches, the communities in our study do not have a seasonally changing, returning pattern either. Based on this, we can conclude that climatic differences and differences in other seasonally changing factors between the seasons do not have a significant role in the annual change of communities. Besides that we discovered that the communities of the three microhabitats are not completely the same. It is the oribatid mite community of the moss which differs mostly from communities in the leaf litter and in the soil. Our study calls attention among others to the fact that compositional changes of the oribatid mite communities living all over the world and their causes are unclear to date.

Spatial variability of soil carbon in forested and cultivated sites: Implications for change detection

The potential to sequester atmospheric carbon in agricultural and forest soils to offset greenhouse gas emissions has generated interest in measuring changes in soil carbon resulting from changes in land management. However, inherent spatial variability of soil carbon limits the precision of measurement of changes in soil carbon and hence, the ability to detect changes. We analyzed variability of soil carbon by intensively sampling sites under different land management as a step toward developing efficient soil sampling designs. Sites were tilled crop-land and a mixed deciduous forest in Tennessee, and old-growth and second-growth coniferous forest in western Washington, USA. Six soil cores within each of three microplots were taken as an initial sample and an additional six cores were taken to simulate resampling. Soil C variability was greater in Washington than in Tennessee, and greater in less disturbed than in more disturbed sites. Using this protocol, our data suggest that differences on the order of 2.0 Mg C ha(-1) could be detected by collection and analysis of cores from at least five (tilled) or two (forest) microplots in Tennessee. More spatial variability in the forested sites in Washington increased the minimum detectable difference, but these systems, consisting of low C content sandy soil with irregularly distributed pockets of organic C in buried logs, are likely to rank among the most spatially heterogeneous of systems. Our results clearly indicate that consistent intramicroplot differences at all sites will enable detection of much more modest changes if the same microplots are resampled.

Cortinarius subgenus Telamonia p.p. in North Europe

Cortinarius is the largest genus of Agaricales with a worldwide distribution. So far, over 4000 Cortinarius names and combinations have been published. Cortinarius spp. form ectomycorrhizae with different trees and shrubs. A majority of the Cortinarius species have narrow ecological preferences and many form ectomycorrhiza with only one or few host species. The subgenus Telamonia sensu lato (s. lat.), comprising the greatest number of species, is the most poorly known of the subgenera of Cortinarius. The centre of diversity is in the northern hemisphere, although some species of the group are also recognized in the southern hemisphere. The aim of this thesis was to study the taxonomy of Cortinarius subgenus Telamonia p.p. species based on morphological and molecular data, as well as to study the ecology and distribution of the species in North Europe. The taxonomical problems encountered and the difficulty in finding and studying all the relevant names and types slowed down the study. The diversity of the subgenus Telamonia s. lat. in North Europe (excluding sect. Hydrocybe, Icrustati and Anomali) was found to be far greater than previously thought. Even many of the common species have not yet been described. So far, ca. 200 species have been recognised from the Nordic countries, but the sampling in most groups does not cover the whole diversity and especially the southern deciduous forest species are underrepresented in our study. In most cases phylogenetic (only based on ITS data) and morphological species recognition were in concordance, but in a few cases morphologically delimited species had almost identical ITS sequences, raising the question as to whether ITS is always variable enough for species recognition. The opposite situation, in which a morphologically uniform species included two phylogenetically distinct lineages, however, was also encountered, suggesting the possibility of cryptic species in Cortinarius. In our studies no taxa below species level were recognised and the aforementioned results indicate that presumably they can only be recognised genetically. Based on our preliminary results a revision of the infrageneric classification in Cortinarius subgenus Telamonia s. lat. is needed, and more sections should be established for a meaningful and functional classification. Many groups have turned out to be artificial, and it seems evident that many characteristics have been over- or underemphasised. Many morphological characteristics, however, are useful in the identification of telamonioid species and e.g. some spore characteristics have often been overlooked. Our studies have concentrated on North Europe, but we have found some similarities with North European and North American taxa.

Ecology of the Asian Elephant in Southern India. I. Movement and Habitat Utilization Patterns

The movement and habitat utilization patterns were studied in an Asian elephant population during 1981-83 within a 1130 km2 area in southern India (110 30' N to 120 0' N and 760 50' E to 770 15' E). The study area encompasses a diversity of vegetation types from dry thorn forest (250-400 m) through deciduous forest (400-1400 m) to stunted evergreen shola forest and grassland (1400-1800 m). Home range sizes of some identified elephants were between 105 and 320 km2. Based on the dry season distribution, five different elephant clans, each consisting of between 50 and 200 individuals and having overlapping home ranges, could be defined within the study area. Seaso- nal habitat preferences were related to the availability of water and the palatability of food plants. During the dry months (January-April) elephants congregated at high densities of up to five individuals kM-2 in river valleys where browse plants had a much higher protein content than the coarse tall grasses on hill slopes. With the onset of rains of the first wet season (May- August) they dispersed over a wider area at lower densities, largely into the tall grass forests, to feed on the fresh grasses, which then had a high protein value. During the second wet season (September-December), when the tall grasses became fibrous, they moved into lower elevation short grass open forests. The normal movement pattern could be upset during years of adverse environmental con- ditions. However, the movement pattern of elephants in this region has not basically changed for over a century, as inferred from descriptions recorded during the nineteenth century.

A landscape-level assessment of Asian elephant habitat, its population and elephant-human conflict in the Anamalai hill ranges of southern Western Ghats, India

Spatial information at the landscape scale is extremely important for conservation planning, especially in the case of long-ranging vertebrates. The biodiversity-rich Anamalai hill ranges in the Western Ghats of southern India hold a viable population for the long-term conservation of the Asian elephant. Through rapid but extensive field surveys we mapped elephant habitat, corridors, vegetation and land-use patterns, estimated the elephant population density and structure, and assessed elephant-human conflict across this landscape. GIS and remote sensing analyses indicate that elephants are distributed among three blocks over a total area of about 4600 km(2). Approximately 92% remains contiguous because of four corridors; however, under 4000 km2 of this area may be effectively used by elephants. Nine landscape elements were identified, including five natural vegetation types, of which tropical moist deciduous forest is dominant. Population density assessed through the dung count method using line transects covering 275 km of walk across the effective elephant habitat of the landscape yielded a mean density of 1.1 (95% Cl = 0.99-1.2) elephant/km(2). Population structure from direct sighting of elephants showed that adult male elephants constitute just 2.9% and adult females 42.3% of the population with the rest being subadults (27.4%), juveniles (16%) and calves (11.4%). Sex ratios show an increasing skew toward females from juvenile (1:1.8) to sub-adult (1:2.4) and adult (1:14.7) indicating higher mortality of sub-adult and adult males that is most likely due to historical poaching for ivory. A rapid questionnaire survey and secondary data on elephant-human conflict from forest department records reveals that villages in and around the forest divisions on the eastern side of landscape experience higher levels of elephant-human conflict than those on the western side; this seems to relate to a greater degree of habitat fragmentation and percentage farmers cultivating annual crops in the east. We provide several recommendations that could help maintain population viability and reduce elephant-human conflict of the Anamalai elephant landscape. (C) 2013 Deutsche Gesellschaft far Saugetierkunde. Published by Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Forgotten records of Chrysopelea taprobanica Smith, 1943 (Squamata: Colubridae) from India

The colubrid snake Chrysopelea taprobanica Smith, 1943 was described from a holotype from Kanthali (= Kantalai) and paratypes from Kurunegala, both localities in Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) (Smith 1943). Since its description, literature pertaining to Sri Lankan snake fauna considered this taxon to be endemic to the island (Taylor 1950, Deraniyagala 1955, de Silva 1980, de Silva 1990, Somaweera 2004, Somaweera 2006, de Silva 2009, Pyron et al. 2013). In addition, earlier efforts on the Indian peninsula (e.g. Das 1994, 1997, Das 2003, Whitaker & Captain 2004, Aengals et al. 2012) and global data compilations (e.g. Wallach et al. 2014, Uetz & Hošek 2015) did not identify any record from mainland India until Guptha et al. (2015) recorded a specimen (voucher BLT 076 housed at Bio-Lab of Seshachalam Hills, Tirupathi, India) in the dry deciduous forest of Chamala, Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, India in November 2013. Guptha et al. (2015) further mentioned an individual previously photographed in 2000 at Rishi Valley, Andhra Pradesh, but with no voucher specimen collected. Guptha’s record, assumed to be the first confirmed record of C. taprobanica in India, is noteworthy as it results in a large range extension, from northern Sri Lanka to eastern India with an Euclidean distance of over 400 km, as well as a change of status, i.e., species not endemic to Sri Lanka. However, at least three little-known previous records of this species from India evaded most literature and were overlooked by the researchers including ourselves.

Influence of soil pedological properties on termite mound stability

This study investigated the influence of soil properties on the density and shape of epigeous fungus-growing termite nests in a dry deciduous forest in Karnataka, India. In this environment, Odontotermes obesus produces cathedral shaped mounds. Their density, shape (height and volume) and soil physicochemical properties were analyzed in ferralsol and vertisol environments. No significant difference was observed in O. obesus mound density (n = 2.7 mound ha(-1) on average in the vertisol and ferralsol areas). This study also showed that O. obesus has a limited effect on soil physical properties. No differences in soil particle size, pH, or the C:N ratio and base saturation were measured whereas the C and N contents were reduced and CEC was higher in termite nest soils in both environments. Clay mineralogical composition was also measured, and showed the presence of higher amounts of smectite clays in termite nest soils, which thus explained the increasing CEC despite the reduced C and N content. However, the main difference was the shape of the termite mounds. The degradation of the nests created a hillock of eroded soil at the base of termite mounds in the vertisol while only a thin layer of eroded soil was observed in the ferralsol. The increased degradation of termite mounds in the vertisol is explained by the presence of smectites (2:1 swelling clays), which confer macroscopic swelling and shrinking characteristics to the soil. Soil shrinkage during the dry season leads to the formation of deep cracks in the termite mounds that allow rain to rapidly penetrate inside the mound wall and then breakdown unstable aggregates. In conclusion, it appears that despite a similar abundance, termite mound properties depend to a large extent on the soil properties of their environments. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Long-term natural acidification of upland sites in Cumbria: Evidence from post-glacial lake sediments

Studies by the Freshwater Biological Association over the last 25 years have supplied data relevant to the levels of acidity in local soils and water before the onset of industrial pollution and current interest in acid rain. This article reviews published analysis from cores of lake sediments, in or near the catchment of the River Duddon. Electron spin resonance spectra of humic acids and iodine values confirm evidence from pollen analysis for a history of progressive acidification of the source material of lake sediments since before 5000 radiocarbon years, in upland catchments of the Lake District. Processes involved included: removal of basic ions from soils by rainfall, the effects of which were intensified by removal by man of deciduous forest; acidification of soils and waters by decomposition products of Calluna and further acidification of waters by Sphagnum species which colonized habitats where drainage became impeded by paludification processes.

森林生态系统的养分循环-一个温带落叶阔叶林生态系统的研究

l、有机质和全N在草甸土壤的不同层次之间呈现明显的差异，表现力随着土壤深度的增加，含量逐渐降低。无机N包括NH4+-N和No3--N在土层之闻的差异并没有象全N和有机质那么显著。NH4+-在表面30Cm的土壤中明显高于NO3--N的。全P在各层土壤中的含量差异并不显著，但有效p在三层土壤中表现出明显的差异，表现为随土壤深度的增加而降低。 K、Na、Ca、Mg、Fe和AI等6种金属元素的可交换成分在革甸土壤中的含量除K表现出明显的土层间的差异外，在表层30cm的土壤中并没有明显的随土壤深度变化的趋势。 有机质和全N在东灵山地区主要森林土壤中的含量以0~lOcm土层中的显著高于10~20cm的土层中的。20cm的土层中无机N中也以NH4+-为主，这与草甸土壤中的一致。全p和有效P在两个土层之间的差异并不十分显著，而以0^lOcm土层略高于10～20Cm土层的。 K、Na、Ca、Mg、Fe和AI等6种金属元素的可交换成分在不同土层间的差异以K和Ca较为明显，K和Ca在O—1Ocm的土层中要高于lO-20cm的。 森林土壤中的有机质、全N（包括NH4+-N）、全p（包括有效P)都表现为低于亚高山草甸土壤中的，主要原因是亚高山革甸分布于海拔1800cm至2300m，而主要森林类型则基本分布在海拔120m至1500m，亚高山草甸较为恶劣的气候条件明显不利于有机质的矿化，因而分解速率较低，积聚了较多的有机质．而森林土壤中较低的NH4+-N和有效P则可能是由于森林中旺盛的生命活动，尤其是微生物的活动，而大量被植物和微生物固持，因而，即使在森林土壤中有较高的矿化速率，但仍具有较低的NH4+-N和有效p的含量． 不同类型的森林土壤之间各化学成分并没有发现有明显的变化趋势，即使森林类型差异较大的落叶阔叶林和针叶林之间也并没有发现十分显著的差异，这说明各森林类型土壤之间养分特征的一致性。两种针叶林均为人工林，林龄不超过30，而在这之前推测也是以落叶阔叶林为主，森林土壤在这30年间并没有发生十分明显的变化。 在l100m至I500m之间的各种森林类型的土壤也没有表现出十分明显的与海拔高度的相关性。同一森林土壤在不同时间的采样之间，各化学成分也没有表现出明显的差异。 2、降水引起的树干茎流水分中全N的含量在降水季节的初期的含量略高于大量降水期间的。而在降水季节后期，随着每次降雨量的减少，降水间隔时间的增加，树干茎流中N的含量明显地有很大幅度的升高。NO3-N在树干茎流中的含量也同样受到了降水量的影响，表现在后期也发生显著的升高，但升高的幅度没有全N的大。受到降水量影响的元素还有S。 全p在树干茎流水分中含量随降水时间的变化，在各个树种之间有很大的差异。 其它几种元素的可交换态在茎流水分中的含量以K的含量为最高;其次是S、ca、Mg，AI在所有分析的元素中含量最低。不过，AI在降水初期(6月22日)的取样中，含量在几个树种的茎流水分样品中普遍较高，Ca和Mg也被发现有类似的情形。 穿透雨中全N的含量在降水初期略高于降水中期的，而至降水末期时又略有升高，这种格局与树干茎流水分中的具有一致性。全P、K、Ca、Mg、S．ＡＩ等包括全N及其无视成分与树干茎流中的含量的差异并不显著． 地表径流中的全N含量在去除枯枝落叶层的径流场的变化格局与树干茎流和穿透雨中的较为一致．表明这三者之间存在一定的相关性．但与未去除枯枝落叶层的径流场的径流水分中全N和NO３－Ｎ的含量并不十分一致，全N和NO３－N的含量有时较高． 取自马牙石沟流水堰口的集水区水样中全N和NO３-N的含量均变化在l～3ｍｇ／L之间;而取自南沟流水堰口的集水区水样中的全N和N03-N的含量均在l～2mg／L之间，但在这两者之间并没有十分显著的差异，说明取自两个集水区溪流水分中的全N和N03-N的含量基本一致。 3、通过对三个森林立地乔木层生物量的两次调查（相隔6年），发现尽管以辽东栎为主要优势树种的暖温带落叶阔叶混交林（91- 03）第一次调查的生物量低于辽东栋林（91 - 02）和桦木林（91 - 04)的，但在生长6年后，该立地的乔木层生物量已明显超过桦木林的，其增长速率在三个样地中为最高。 根据两次调查的结果，三个样地中出现的11种乔木树种胸径的增加可以分成两组，第一组包括北京花楸、糠椴、白桦和辽东栎，另一组则由山杨、五角枫、棘皮桦、大叶白蜡、蒙椴、黄花柳和沙涞组成。6年中，第一组树种的胸径增加量在1.O～l.4em之间，而第二组的增量在0.2~O.9cm之间，两者之间具有显著的差异。 常用的生物量预测模型包括两个因子，即胸径(D)和树高(H)。D通常可以实测得到，但H大部分只能估计得到。本研究通过比较6年前后两次树高的实际估测结果，证明用D和H共同建立的模型预测结果可能会产生较大的人为误差，建议改用D的单因子预测模型。 无论是实测结果还是树木年轮分析结果，都表明处于目前径级水平的暖温带地区分布的这几个树种还处在不断生长的过程中，随着年龄的增加，表现为胸径还有很大程度的增加，因为这些树种目前的大径级个体的年平均增加速率大于小径级的． 树木年龄与胸径的相互关系的分析结果表明，树木年龄和胸径可以很好地用饱和模型Y=a-be－ｃｘ来拟合． 4、通过近5年对辽东栎枝条( D<0.5cm)和叶片凋落物分解的观察和分析，发现辽东栎枝条的总失重率达到了43%，分解速率常数k为2.713x10－3／周，而叶的总失重率则可以达到70%，分解速率常数k为6.234xl0-3/周. 枝条分解过程中的有机质含量变化可以分为三种类型，一种是单调上升型的，如蛋白质，其含量从3.5%增加到约6%;-种是单调下降型的，如半纤维素，约从15%降低至7%;另一种则是相对变化不大，如粗纤维（包括纤维素和木质素），粗纤维的含量变化在58％±3%，木质素变化在56%±2.5%，纤维素则变化在1%～3%之间。 用Olson指数方程拟合，结果表明粗纤维、木质素和半纤维素三者的分解以半纤维素为最快，分解速率常数为5.693xl0-3／周，其次是木质素和粗纤维，分别为2.461x10-3/周和2.352xl0-3／周．而蛋白质和纤维素的拟合结果较差或根本无法拟合． 用Olsoｎ指数方程拟合的结果表明，有些元素在凋落物分解过程中可以很好地用该方程拟合，如K，Na、Mn和C，p和N，Mg，Zn，而一些元素如Ca和Cu没有取得很好的拟合效果。 几种元素在叶片凋落物分解过程过程的丢失速率也以K为最快，其它元素的顺序为，e，N，p，Na，Mn，Mg和Ca（Ca的拟合效果较差），而Cu、Zn也不能很好地用Olson指数方程拟合。 5、根据对东灵山地区6年(199l~1997)的气象观测结果，可得到该地区的年平均降水量和总降水量，用1994年分析的降水中养分含量的数据可以近似计算得东灵山地区每年通过降水进入该暖温带落叶阔叶林生态系统的几种养分输入量。同理可以计算降水输入养分在树干茎流和穿透雨中的分配，还可以计算养分从地表径流中的输出。通过对这几个水分循环的主要环节中养分输入或输出量的计算，发现每年通过降水而进入系统的养分，大部分将积累在系统中，而输出份额只占很小的一部分。 K和Mg两种养分元素在降水通过林冠和树干表面时，将产生大量的淋溶，而Ca的淋溶较小．N、P和AI则产生少量的吸附或吸收。对于S来说，淋溶和吸收或吸附作用相当，或两者都很小。 通过生物量的年平均增量和生物量中的养分含量可以计算得到每年积累在生物量中的养分量即存留量，同理可以计算年凋落物中的养分量、归还量及生物系统从土壤中吸收的养分量，每年养分的存留率．通过以上计算，发现该落叶阔叶林对养分的存留率较低，这可能是由于该落叶阔叶林森林生态系统每年具有较高的养分归还量，对于一些元素来说，还具有较高的淋溶量，尤其是K和Mg．

北京山区落叶阔叶林优势种水分生理生态研究

本文研究了北京山区落叶阀叶林优势种一辽东栎、大叶白蜡、北京丁香、核桃楸、山杏和荆条等乔灌木的稳定碳同位素比率，长期水分利用效率、植物蒸腾特性和土壤植物体的水分运动特点，并从植物解剖学的角度研究了这些植物叶片特点和其水分生理生态特性的关系。 对北京山区落叶阔叶林生态系统这几种乔、灌木植物叶片中的碳稳定性同位素比率(δ¹³C值)测定结果显示，这些植物叶片的δ¹³C值受多种因子的影响，具有较大的种间差异及时空异质性。主要表现在不同植物种叶片δ¹³C值不同，其排列顺序为山杏(- 24.75±0.85%。>大叶白蜡(- 25,94±1.52%。)=荆条(- 26.01±1.63%。)=辽东栎(一26.07±1.17%。)=北京丁香(-26.46±0.80c70。)>核桃楸(-28.11±1.52%。);生长初期叶片δ¹³C值较生长末期高，尤以核桃楸和辽东栎表现明显其生长初期和末期的叶片δ¹³C值皆相差达3‰;生境条件，特别是土壤水分含量和土层厚度，对植物叶片的813C值的高低有较大的影响，生长在于旱生境中的植物具有较高的δ¹³C值。另外，即使是同一株植物，叶片δ¹³C值也因其在冠层中所处的位置不同而异，冠层项部叶片的δ¹³C值高于林冠内部的叶片。北京山区落叶阔叶林优势种的长期水分利用效率与种的特点有关，山杏最高(4.950±0．l71mmolC0_2•mol-1H_2O)，核桃楸最低(3.760±0.203mmolC0_2•mol-1H_2O)，大叶白蜡、荆条、辽东栎和北京丁香居中(4.346- 4.530 mmolCO_2•mol-1H_2O)，大部分植物长期水分利用效率在春季（5月）较高，秋季较低，荆条由于物候期的特殊性在其生长季初期较低，而后逐渐增高。核桃楸在不存在水分亏缺情况下，树干液流速率受微气候因子的影响，液流速率的最大值达1600g•hour 左右。树干液流速率的日进程和大气相对湿度、温度的日进程具有相当好的生态学同步性。通过对核桃楸夜晚树干液流的分析可以得出其有根压存在的结论。 植物叶片和枝条中自由水和束缚水含量主要决定于植物种的特性，枝条的年龄、生境特点，特别是土壤水分特点。在落叶阔叶林I(样地2)中植物叶片自由水含量的排列顺序是：北京丁香>核桃楸>大叶白蜡>辽东栎;而杂灌丛（样地1）中植物叶片自由水含量的排列顺序是：核桃楸>大叶白蜡>山杏>荆条>北京丁香>辽东栎，可见群落类型对植物自由水含量影响是很大的，植物束缚水含量与其自由水含量的格局完全相反，荆条、山杏等植物含量高，核桃揪含量低。枝条水分含量有与叶片水分含量相类似的特点。 北京山区落叶阔叶林优势种的水分生理生态学特性和其叶片的特点有很大的关系，首先是植物叶片的特点总是和其种的特性相联系，主要表现在叶的类型、叶片上毛、气孔密度、着生方式等，如荆条叶片上下表面都密被披针形毛，气孔小，核桃楸气孔较大且凸出，大叶白蜡叶片上的气孔凹陷，辽东栎的气孔呈椭圆状，保卫细胞上有许多白色蜡质结晶。有一些种有环状的气孔外缘。生境的变化对叶片的形态特征有影响，在全光照条件下叶片小而犀，而在庇荫条件下叶片大而薄，在扫描电镜下可见全光照条件下北京丁香叶片基本无毛，庇荫条件下则有短微毛，全光条件下荆条叶片上毛有小乳头状凸起，庇荫条件下没有。本文所研究的植物种气孔都着生在叶片的下表面，气孔密度的大小排列顺序是：辽东栎>山杏>北京丁香>核桃楸>大叶白蜡。经方差分析显示种闷气孔密度存在极显著性差异。对所研究植物的气孔导度和环境因子、叶片解剖特点进行线性回归分析，得到了总体的和各个种的回归模型，结果表明光照强度、气孔密度等对气孔导度影响显著，但因种的不同相互之间存在差别。 植物的蒸腾速率受多因子的影响，主要有种的特点、微气候因子（光照强度、大气相对湿度、叶面温度、叶室温度等）和土壤水分特点。植物的蒸腾速率日进程和微气候因子日进程有相当好的生态学同步性。对辽东栎的蒸腾速率和光照强度的研究发现二者有很好的线性关系。这些植物蒸腾速率都表现出一定规律的日进程和季节进程，大多数植物蒸腾速率在一天中有数次波动，最高峰一般出现在中午12时之前;在整个生长季中，6月底至8月初的蒸腾速率高于其他月份。