The effect of starvation on respiration rates, gut fluorescence and electron transfer system activity in Daphnia magna

Máster en Oceanografía

Valutazione del rischio ecologico di residui di farmaci nell’ambiente: analisi sperimentale della tossicità sul crostaceo Daphnia magna

I farmaci sono una nuova classe di inquinanti ambientali ubiquitari che raggiungono, insieme alle acque fognarie, i depuratori urbani che non sono in grado di rimuoverli o degradarli. Così le acque depurate, ancora ricche di farmaci, si riversano nei canali riceventi portando questo carico di inquinanti fino ai fiumi e ai laghi. L’obiettivo del presente studio è stato fornire un contributo alla valutazione del rischio ecologico associato al rilascio di miscele di farmaci nell’ambiente acquatico, verificando con esperimenti di laboratorio gli effetti dell’esposizione congiunta a propranololo e fluoxetina sulla riproduzione di Daphnia magna, crostaceo planctonico d’acqua dolce. Il propranololo è un farmaco beta-bloccante, ossia blocca l'azione dell'adrenalina sui recettori adrenergici di tipo beta del cuore e viene utilizzato contro l’ipertensione. La fluoxetina è un antidepressivo, inibitore selettivo della ricaptazione della serotonina. Sono stati eseguiti test cronici (21 giorni) con solo propranololo (0,25 - 2,00 mg/L) e con solo fluoxetina (0,03 - 0,80 mg/L) che hanno stimato un EC50 per la riproduzione di 0,739 mg/L e di 0,238 mg/L, rispettivamente. L’ultima fase sperimentale consisteva in un test cronico con 25 miscele contenti percentuali diverse dei due farmaci (0%; 25%; 50%; 75%; 100%) e con diverse concentrazioni totali (0,50; 0,71; 1,00; 1,41; 2,00 unità tossiche). Le unità tossiche sono state calcolate sulla base degli EC50 dei precedenti test cronici con i singoli farmaci. I dati sperimentali del test sono stati analizzati utilizzando MixTox, un metodo statistico per la previsione degli effetti congiunti di miscele di sostanze tossiche, che ha permesso di stabilire quale fosse il modello in grado di rappresentare al meglio i risultati sperimentali. Il modello di riferimento utilizzato è stato la concentration addition (CA) a partire dal quale si è identificato il modello che meglio rappresenta l’interazione tra i due farmaci: antagonism (S/A) dose ratio dependent (DR). Infatti si evidenzia antagonismo per tutte le miscele dei due farmaci, ma più accentuato in presenza di una maggiore percentuale di propranololo. Contrariamente a quanto verificato in studi su altre specie e su effetti biologici diversi, è comunque stato possibile evidenziare un affetto avverso sulla riproduzione di D. magna solo a concentrazioni di propranololo e fluoxetina molto più elevate di quelle osservate nelle acque superficiali.

Use of bioassays and biomarkers in Daphnia magna to assess the effect of pharmaceutical residuals in freshwater ecosystems

Widespread occurrence of pharmaceuticals residues has been reported in aquatic ecosystems. However, their toxic effects on aquatic biota remain unclear. Generally, the acute toxicity has been assessed in laboratory experiments, while chronic toxicity studies have rarely been performed. Of importance appears also the assessment of mixture effects, since pharmaceuticals never occur in waters alone. The aim of the present work is to evaluate acute and chronic toxic response in the crustacean Daphnia magna exposed to single pharmaceuticals and mixtures. We tested fluoxetine, a SSRI widely prescribed as antidepressant, and propranolol, a non selective β-adrenergic receptor-blocking agent used to treat hypertension. Acute immobilization and chronic reproduction tests were performed according to OECD guidelines 202 and 211, respectively. Single chemicals were first tested separately. Toxicity of binary mixtures was then assessed using a fixed ratio experimental design with concentrations based on Toxic Units. The conceptual model of Concentration Addition was adopted in this study, as we assumed that the mixture effect mirrors the sum of the single substances for compounds having similar mode of action. The MixTox statistical method was applied to analyze the experimental results. Results showed a significant deviation from CA model that indicated antagonism between chemicals in both the acute and the chronic mixture tests. The study was integrated assessing the effects of fluoxetine on a battery of biomarkers. We wanted to evaluate the organism biological vulnerability caused by low concentrations of pharmaceutical occurring in the aquatic environment. We assessed the acetylcholinesterase and glutathione s-transferase enzymatic activities and the malondialdehyde production. No treatment induced significant alteration of biomarkers with respect to the control. Biological assays and the MixTox model application proved to be useful tools for pharmaceutical risk assessment. Although promising, the application of biomarkers in Daphnia magna needs further elucidation.

Avaliação da fertilidade e sensibilidade de Daphnia similis e Daphina magna (Crustacea, Cladocera) submetidas a diferentes tipos de dietas e meios de cultivo

O gênero Daphnia é o grupo mais antigo utilizado em ensaios de toxicidade. Dentre este grupo, as espécies Daphnia similis e Daphnia magna tiveram sua biologia amplamente estudada e vem sendo utilizada para ensaios toxicológicos. Diferentes condições de cultivo, no entanto, podem influenciar na produtividade e sensibilidade dos organismos. Este trabalho tem como objetivo, avaliar a influência de diferentes dietas e meios de cultivo na sensibilidade e na reprodução de D. similis e D. magna. Foram realizados cultivos com dez indivíduos em béqueres de 250 mL e 600 mL para D. similis e D. magna respectivamente, com água destilada deionizada reconstituída e meio de cultivo M4, mantidos a 20°C, fotoperíodo de 16horas/luz e alimentados com diferentes combinações de alimento com quatro réplicas cada. As dietas consistiam na utilização das algas Selenastrum capricornutum na concentração de 1.5.105 céls.mL-1 e Scenedesmus subspicatus na concentração de 106 céls.mL-1 . A combinação destas algas com o complemento de uma ração podendo ser de truta ou artêmia na concentração de 6 g.L-1 também foi utilizada. Em cada tratamento observou-se diariamente o número médio de neonatos produzidos por fêmea no período de 21 dias. Paralelamente foram realizados ensaios de sensibilidade ao dicromato de potássio de acordo com a NBR 12713 para cada dieta. Os resultados obtidos quanto à fertilidade quando submetidas a uma dieta com as algas S. capricornutum para D. similis e S. subspicatus para D. magna tendo o complemento de uma ração de artêmia demonstrou que independente do meio utilizado para o cultivo, a reprodução não variou significativamente o que caracteriza a ração de artêmia como uma alternativa ao complemento M4. Quanto à sensibilidade, em todos os casos analisados, quando cultivados em meio M4 os organismos mostraram-se mais resistentes ao Dicromato de Potássio do que quando cultivados em meio ISO.

Effect of water chemistry on the physiology and toxicity assessment in Daphnia

Todos os sistemas aquáticos estão potencialmente expostos a alterações nos parâmetros da água em consequência de fenómenos ambientais tais como deposição ácida, lixiviação de iões dos solos e alterações climáticas. Dado que os parâmetros químicos da água estão geralmente correlacionados, é pertinente estudar os seus efeitos combinados para o biota aquático. Assim, o principal objetivo desta tese é avaliar a importância ecológica da variação simultânea dos principais parâmetros fisico-químicos da água nos parâmetros de história de vida dos crustáceos tanto na ausência como na presença de metais. Foram estudados os seguintes parâmetros: dureza (0.5 - 3.5 mM), alcalinidade (0.3 - 2.3 mM), pH (5.7 - 9.0) e temperatura (13 - 30ºC). A Daphnia magna foi usada como espécie modelo representando os crustáceos aquáticos. A variação simultânea da dureza e alcalinidade afetou significativamente o crescimento, reprodução e crescimento populacional de Daphnia; no entanto, os efeitos da dureza excederam os efeitos da alcalinidade. Pareceu haver interação entre a dureza e alcalinidade na reprodução dos dafnídeos, o que sugere que os efeitos da variação da dureza para Daphnia e provavelmente outros crustáceos poderão depender do nível de alcalinidade. O pH e dureza da água exerceram efeitos combinados para Daphnia, sendo os efeitos do pH mais pronunciados do que os efeitos da dureza. A diminuição do pH reduziu a sobrevivência, crescimento, reprodução, taxa de ingestão e crescimento populacional dos dafnídeos. No entanto, os efeitos do pH baixo foram mais adversos a baixa dureza, o que sugere uma interação entre estes parâmetros. Assim, a diminuição do pH em lagos de água mole pode ser um estressor determinante para os crustáceos sensíveis à acidez, ameaçando a sua sobrevivência e, consequentemente, afetando a estrutura das cadeias alimentares aquáticas. A temperatura e a química da água (dureza e alcalinidade) interagiram entre si nos parâmetros de história de vida de Daphnia; no entanto, os efeitos da temperatura excederam os efeitos da química da água. De um modo geral, temperaturas extremas reduziram o crescimento, reprodução e, consequentemente, o crescimento populacional de Daphnia. Os efeitos do aumento da temperatura foram mais adversos a baixa dureza e alcalinidade, aumentando a preocupação com os efeitos ecológicos do aquecimento global em águas moles. A dureza e alcalinidade da água também desempenharam um papel importante na toxicidade aguda e subletal (inibição da ingestão) dos metais para Daphnia. A diminuição da dureza aumentou a toxicidade aguda do zinco. Por outro lado, a diminuição da alcalinidade aumentou a toxicidade aguda e subletal do cobre, mas reduziu a toxicidade subletal do zinco, tornando evidente o importante papel da alcalinidade na toxicidade subletal dos metais para Daphnia. Globalmente, os parâmetros fisico-químicos da água parecem interagir entre si, afetando os parâmetros de história de vida e o crescimento populacional de Daphnia e também afetam a toxicidade dos metais. Em particular, a baixa dureza agrava os efeitos adversos da diminuição do pH, aumento da temperatura e toxicidade dos metais, o que aumenta a preocupação com os efeitos ecológicos da sua variação simultânea sobre os crustáceos e, portanto, sobre as cadeias alimentares aquáticas.

Outlining eicosanoid biosynthesis in the crustacean Daphnia

Background: Eicosanoids are biologically active, oxygenated metabolites of three C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids. They act as signalling molecules within the autocrine or paracrine system in both vertebrates and invertebrates mainly functioning as important mediators in reproduction, the immune system and ion transport. The biosynthesis of eicosanoids has been intensively studied in mammals and it is known that they are synthesised from the fatty acid, arachidonic acid, through either the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway; the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway; or the cytochrome P450 epoxygenase pathway. However, little is still known about the synthesis and structure of the pathway in invertebrates. Results: Here, we show transcriptomic evidence from Daphnia magna (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) together with a bioinformatic analysis of the D. pulex genome providing insight on the role of eicosanoids in these crustaceans as well as outlining a putative pathway of eicosanoid biosynthesis. Daphnia appear only to have one copy of the gene encoding the key enzyme COX, and phylogenetic analysis reveals that the predicted protein sequence of Daphnia COX clusters with other invertebrates. There is no current evidence of an epoxygenase pathway in Daphnia; however, LOX products are most certainly synthesised in daphnids. Conclusion: We have outlined the structure of eicosanoid biosynthesis in Daphnia, a key genus in freshwater ecosystems. Improved knowledge of the function and synthesis of eicosanoids in Daphnia and other invertebrates could have important implications for several areas within ecology. This provisional overview of daphnid eicosanoid biosynthesis provides a guide on where to focus future research activities in this area.

Intraclonal variability in Daphnia acetylcholinesterase activity: The implications for its applicability as a biomarker

The relationship between individual growth and acetylcholinesterase (AChE).activity was evaluated for Daphnia magna. Analysis on the influence of two different culture media on baseline AChE activity was performed with Daphnia similis. The results indicated an inverse relationship between D. magna body length and AChE activity. An increase in total protein, which was not proportional to an increase in the rate of the substrate hydrolysis (Delta absorbance/min), seems to be the reason for this inverse size versus AChE activity relationship. Therefore, toxicants such as phenobarbital, which affect protein and size but not AChE activity directly, have an overall affect on AChE activity. In contrast, the AChE inhibitor parathion altered AChE activity but not protein. Culture medium also had a significant affect on AChE activity in D. similis. Changes in total protein seem to be the main reason for the variations in baseline AChE activity in Daphnia observed in the different evaluations performed in this work. Therefore, AChE activity in Daphnia must be interpreted carefully, and variations related to changes in total protein must be taken into account when applying this enzyme as a biomarker in biological monitoring.

Bioavailability and toxicity of chemicals in inland waters : the importance of prevailing water chemistry and implications for risk assessment

Physicochemical characterization of freshwater samples from Finland, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Spain revealed that water hardness and pH decreased and the quantity and quality of humic substances changed considerably in this geographical series from south to north. Since the ambient water chemistry may affect the availability of chemicals, the total aqueous concentration of a chemical may be insufficient to predict the bioconcentration, subsequent biological response, and thus risk. In addition, organisms could be affected directly by water quality characteristics. In this context the main objective of this thesis was to investigate the bioavailability of selected ecotoxicologically relevant chemicals (cadmium, benzo(a)pyrene, and pyrene) in various European surface waters and to show the importance of certain water chemistry characteristics in interpreting the bioavailability and toxicity results. The bioavailability of cadmium to Daphnia magna was examined in very soft humic lake water. Humic substances as natural ligands decreased the free and bioavailable proportion of cadmium in soft lake water. As a consequence the uptake rate and the acute toxicity decreased compared with the humic-free reference. When the hardness of humic lake water was artificially elevated, the acute toxicity of cadmium decreased, although the proportion of free cadmium increased. The decreased bioavailability of cadmium in hard water was a result of effective competition for uptake by the hardness cations, especially calcium ions. The protective role of humic substances and water hardness against cadmium toxicity was also observed in Lumbriculus variegatus, although D. magna was more sensitive to cadmium. The bioavailability of two polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pyrene and benzo(a)pyrene, was studied in European surface waters of varying water chemistry. Humic substances acted as complexing ligands with both PAHs, but the bioavailability of the more lipophilic benzo(a)pyrene to D. magna was affected more by humic substances than that of pyrene. In addition, not only the quantity of humic substances, but also their quality affected the bioavailability of benzo(a)pyrene. Nevertheless, the humic substances played a protective role in the photo-enhanced toxicity of pyrene under UV-B radiation. Water hardness had no effect on pyrene toxicity. Results indicate that the typical physicochemical characteristics of boreal freshwaters should be considered carefully in local and regional risk assessment of chemicals concerning the Fennoscandian region.

Bird migration and the spread of Crustacea. [Translation from: Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft 27, 311-316, 1963.]

The passive spread of a high percentage of freshwater organisms is one of the most important requirements in short-lived and insular communities for species to attai n and survive - and consequently to balance the lack of a topographical continuity of most inland waters. Unfortunately hardly anything is known about the amounts of seed material typical for any lake into which it is carried. The causes of passive dissemination - wind, water and animals as well as man - are confirmed by many examples. It has been assumed now for at least a hundered years that , among animals, birds play a prominent role, although also disappointingly few facts are at hand. The passage and spread through birds' intestines has up to now been supported only by some limited data. This paper reports on experimental research where the eggs of Daphnia magna, Triops cancriformis, Artemia salina, Diaptomus spinosus and Cypris pubera were introduced by means of gelatine capsules into the oesophagus of a drake. The bird's excrements were inspected under a microscope for eggs and resting stages, and these were transferred into corresponding cultures.

Effect of two green algae species (Chlorella sp. & Scenedesmus obliquus) enriched with B group vitamins on food chain of Rutilus frisii kutum (Kamensky, 1901) fry

The Effect of two freshwater green algae species Chlorella sp. & Scenedesmus obliquus enriched (from the beginning of culture and after 96 hours) with different dosages of B group vitamins (0, 0.5, 1, and 2 ml of enriching solution per each liter of algae medium) on fecundity of Daphnia magna and growth of Rutilus frisii kutum fry were investigated in a research from spring, 2008 to autumn, 2009. First, each of the green algae species were cultured purely and massively in the Zander (Z-8+N) medium and then the nutritional value (the amount of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate) of enriched algae were meausered. In this study, enriching of Chlorella sp. & S. obliquus with a suitable mix of B group vitamins significantly improved their nutritive value. So the highest amount of nutritional value of Chlorella sp. was obtained because of enriching with dosage 0.5 ml.l-1 (366.654Kcal) and for Scenedesmus obliquus with dosage of 1 ml.l-1 (376.95Kcal). The acquired amount from control group showed an increase of respectively 42% and 11%. According to the results, increased dosages of enriching solution caused Daphnia fecundity to increase (at both stages : enrichment from the beginning of culture and after 96 hours). So the highest average of D. magna reproduction rate was obtained through being fed with Chlorella sp. and S. obliquus enriched with dosage of 2 ml enriching solution per liter of algae medium. The average fecundity of D. magna fed with Chlorella sp. enriched with dosage of 2 ml.l-1 enriching solution from the beginning of culture and after 96 hours was obtained respectively 2.128 ± 0.375 and 2.1 ± 0.69 and the average fecundity of D. magna fed with S. obliquus enriched with dosage of 2 ml enriching solution from the beginning of culture and after 96 hours was obtained respectively 2.128 ± 0.375 and 2.1 ± 0.69 which showed respectively an increase of 61 ٪, 91٪, 77 ٪, and 83٪ in proportion to the acquired amount from control group. When enriching solution was added to either algae culture medium from the beginning of culture, showed statistically significant differences (P<0.05) between dosages of 0 and 2 ml.l-1, 1 and 2 ml.l-1, and 0.5 and 2 ml enriching solution per each liter of Chlorella sp. culture medium and between dosages of 0 and 1 ml.l-1, and 0 and 2 ml enriching solution per each liter of S. obliquus culture medium. The highest average of body weight gain percentage and specific growth rate of kutum fry was obtained respectively 21.19%, 26.63%, 1.92, and 2.34 from the beginning of culture and after 96 hours with dosage of 1 ml B group vitamins per each liter of Chlorella sp. culture medium, which showed respectively an increase of 50%, 70%, 46%, and 62% in proportion to the acquired amount from control group. In the cases which Chlorella sp. were grown in the medium containing vitamin, from point of view of the average percentage of weight and specific growth rate of kutum fry significant differences were observed on the basis of the result of One-way ANOVA between dosages of 0 and 1, 1 and 2 , 0.5 and 1 ml B group vitamins per each liter. The highest average of body weight gain percentage and specific growth rate of kutum fry was obtained respectively 32.02%, 29.42%, 2.78, and 2.34 from the beginning of culture and after 96 hours with dosage of 2 ml B group vitamins per each liter of S. obliquus culture medium, which showed respectively an increase of 32%, 19%, 28%, and 17% in proportion to the acquired amount from control group. In the cases which S. obliquus were grown in the medium containing vitamin, from point of view of the average percentage of weight and specific growth rate of kutum fry significant differences were observed on the basis of the result of One-way ANOVA between dosages of 0 and 1, 0 and 2. According to the results of the present research we can say that considerable enhancement in the quality of the food of D. magna can be made by manipulation of the nutritional value of fresh water unicellular green algae with suitable mixture of B group vitamins, so that both the fecundity of D. magna will increase and the nutritional requirements of the kutum fry will be filled in this way.

两种不同株铜绿微囊藻培养液对大型溞的毒性效应研究

为了探讨铜绿微囊藻对浮游甲壳动物溞类的毒害效应,试验选取了两种不同株系(产毒和非产毒)的藻种,采取利用其培养液的方法,以研究铜绿微囊藻在生长过程中向水体中释放的毒素或类毒素物质对溞类的效应以及比较不同株系间效应的差异性。研究结果表明:(1)试验所选铜绿微囊藻产毒和非产毒株系的培养液均能对大型溞(Daphnia magna)的生长繁殖构成影响,表现为低剂量起促进效应,高剂量起抑制效应;(2)铜绿微囊藻产毒株较非产毒株更能影响大型溞的存活;(3)铜绿微囊藻产毒和非产毒株对大型溞的生长影响差异不大,但对其繁殖却

用水毒理学方法评价家用洗涤剂的潜在危害

选用5种不同产地的常用类型的家用洗涤剂,用水毒理学方法研究它们对水生动物的毒性影响并由此判断对水生态系统的潜在危害.结果表明,在远低于日常使用量的浓度下,5种家用洗涤剂均对稀有鲫(Grobiocypris rarus)鱼苗和大型(Daphnia magna,HB)有急性毒性,离体条件下对鲫鱼(Carassius auratus)鳃ATP酶有较强的抑制作用;在无急性毒性浓度下暴露时对大型繁殖有明显影响;当暴露于家用洗涤剂对鱼24h半数致死浓度的5%时鲫鱼鳃ATP酶受到明显抑制;家用洗涤剂溶液存放一段时