Cloning of novel bombesin precursor cDNAs from skin of Bombina maxima

Amphibian skin is a rich resource of bioactive peptides like proline-rich bombesin from frog Bombina maxima. A novel cDNA clone encoding a precursor protein that comprises proline-rich bombesin and a novel peptide, designated as bombestatin, was isolated from a skin cDNA library of B. maxima. The predicted primary structure of the novel peptide is WEVLLNVALIRLELLSCRSSKDQDQKESCGMHSW, in which two cysteines form a disulfide bond. A BLAST search of databases did not detect sequences with significant similarity. Bombestatin possesses dose-dependent contractile activity on rat stomach strips. The differences between cDNAs encoding PR-bombesin plus bombestatin and PR-bombesin alone are due to fragment insertions located in 3'-coding region and 3'-untranslational region, respectively. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

三种两栖类动物皮肤和脑中活性多肽结构、功能与多样性分析

两栖动物是最原始的陆生脊椎动物，分布比较广泛。无尾目两栖动物现有3000 多种，它们皮肤裸露、光滑，为适应广泛的栖息地和生态条件，已进化出各种有效的皮肤防御系统。抗菌肽（Antimicrobial peptides，AMPs）作为两栖类先天防御系统的重要组成部分，在皮肤分泌液中含量异常丰富。我们以来源于云南省普洱市景东县的铃蟾科微蹼铃蟾（Bombina microdeladigitora）和楚雄州双柏县雨蛙科华西雨蛙（Hyla annectans）为实验材料，对其皮肤分泌液中抗菌肽的分子多样性并对其结构和功能进行研究。微蹼铃蟾皮肤抗菌肽多样性非常丰富，我们从单一个体中克隆得到了64 条编码不同抗菌肽的cDNA 序列，其中有两条序列只编码Maximin 一种抗菌肽，其余 62 条均编码Maximin 和Maximin H 两类抗菌肽。这64 条cDNA 序列共编码44 种Maximins 和30 种Maximin Hs，其中有32 种Maximins 和20 种Maximin Hs 为新鉴定的抗菌肽，其余和铃蟾属其它种中发现的抗菌肽具有相同的序列。除了皮肤外，两栖动物的脑也是抗菌肽的丰富资源库。我们分别从微蹼铃蟾和大蹼铃蟾（B. maxima）脑中得到了大量新的抗菌肽cDNA 序列。其中从微蹼铃蟾脑中克隆到21 条新的cDNA序列，共编码16 种Maximins 和10 种Maximin Hs，其中7 种Maximins 和4 种Maximin Hs 为新鉴定的抗菌肽。从大蹼铃蟾脑中克隆到39 条新的cDNA 序列，编码27 种Maximins 和20 种Maximin Hs，其中16 种 Maximins 和12 种Maximin Hs 为新鉴定的抗菌肽。在以上新鉴定的抗菌肽中，Maximins 均为阳离子抗菌肽，Maximin Hs 中除以前鉴定的Maximin H5 外，尚有十余种阴离子抗菌肽。抗菌肽碱基转换/颠换（R=s/v）分析表明，RMaximin<1 而RMaximin H>1，说明这两种抗菌肽碱基转换和颠换发生的几率并不相同，Maximin 间差异主要由碱基颠换引起，而Maximin H 则主要由碱基转换引起。种间进化分析表明，大蹼铃蟾和微蹼铃蟾的遗传距离较近，而它们与欧洲花铃蟾（B. variegata）的遗传距离均较远。种内各部分遗传距离差异较大。与信号肽和酸性间隔肽相比，成熟肽的遗传距离明显增大，其中Maximin 的进化速度比Maximin H 更快。抗菌肽Maximin 和Maximin H 种内、种间均存在正选择（ω>1），而信号肽和酸性间隔肽在分化过程中没有正选择（ω<1），说明Maximin 和Maximin H 经受着达尔文正选择驱动的快速进化，是抗菌肽多样性产生的根本原因。这与抗菌肽参与最终的生物防御功能，从而增加物种对环境的适应是一致的。功能研究发现，有些微蹼铃蟾Maximins 抗菌肽是多功能分子，不但对革兰氏阴性菌、革兰氏阳性菌和真菌起抗菌作用，而且还具有很强的抗氧化功能。脑中抗菌肽基因的大量表达也预示着抗菌肽可能在神经信号传导中起一定作用。用基因克隆方法我们从微蹼铃蟾皮肤得到大量缓激肽前体序列，由1-4 个拷贝的Bombinakinin 或1-4 个拷贝的Bombinakinin 和1 个拷贝的Bombinakinin-GAP 组成。这与大蹼铃蟾皮肤中缓激肽前体由1-8 个拷贝的Bombinakinin 或1-8 个拷贝的Bombinakinin 和1 个拷贝的Bombinakinin-GAP 组成有所不同。按同样方法，我们从大蹼铃蟾脑中也得到了三条缓激肽前体序列，其中两条含有6 个 Bombinakinin 拷贝，另一条含2 个Bombinakinin 拷贝。通过比较只含Bombinakinin 和同时含有Bombinakinin 和Bombinakinin-GAP 的前体cDNA 序列后发现， 前者序列中缺失了一段碱基序列TGCGGGTA， 从而导致移码突变， 终止了 Bombinakinin-GAP 的表达。通过生物化学的手段从微蹼铃蟾皮肤分泌液中分离到一种丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂BMSI1，与铃蟾属其它种中的胰蛋白酶抑制剂具有很高的相似性。根据已有铃蟾属丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂cDNA 序列设计引物，以皮肤cDNA 为模板，扩增丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂的基因序列，结果得到两条不同的序列。这两条前体序列与铃蟾属其它两栖动物皮肤中的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂具有高度相似性（>70%），而且它们都含有10 个半胱氨酸残基。BMSI1 对五种丝氨酸蛋白水解发色底物的抑制活性测定表明，BMSI 1 能抑制胰蛋白酶和凝血酶的水解活性，其K(i)分别为0.02 μM 和0.15 μM。通过随机筛选cDNA 文库的方法，我们从大蹼铃蟾脑中得到了一条完整的 Somatostatin（SST）序列，根据该序列，我们在大蹼铃蟾和微蹼铃蟾脑cDNA 文库中筛选到两条变异体序列SST-L(Leu11-SST-14)和SST-R(Arg14-SST-14)。功能研究表明，这两种变异体具有和SST 相似的生物学功能，可抑制肿瘤细胞增殖、抑制细胞因子释放以及具有一定的镇痛作用。从大蹼铃蟾和微蹼铃蟾脑中得到了阿片肽前体POMC 和Proenkephalin 的 cDNA 序列，序列比对发现与东方铃蟾具有较高的同源性。从华西雨蛙皮肤cDNA 中克隆得到两类活性多肽，命名为Annins。其中一类为抗菌肽类似肽，共11 条序列，编码单一的成熟肽序列，其信号肽与雨蛙科信号肽具有很高的同源性，但酸性间隔肽和成熟肽相差较大。其成熟肽由15-17 个氨基酸残基组成，活性分析表明无抗菌和抗氧化作用，但在较高浓度时对部分细菌和多种细胞有促进生长作用，推测可能在使伤口快速愈合方面起重要作用；另一类编码具有2 个拷贝的成熟肽序列，成熟肽由5 个氨基酸残基组成，具有一定的镇痛活性，其镇痛机理可能是拮抗bradykinin 作用。

Generation and characterisation of biologically active milk-derived protein and peptide fractions

In recent years, extensive research has been carried out on the health benefits of milk proteins and peptides. Biologically active peptides are defined as specific protein fragments which have a positive impact on the physiological functions of the body; such peptides are produced naturally in vivo, but can also be generated by physical and/or chemical processes, enzymatic hydrolysis and/or microbial fermentation. The aims of this thesis were to investigate not only the traditional methods used for the generation of bioactive peptides, but also novel processes such as heat treatment, and the role of indigenous milk proteases, e.g., in mastitic milk, in the production of such peptides. In addition, colostrum was characterised as a source of bioactive proteins and peptides. Firstly, a comprehensive study was carried out on the composition and physical properties of colostrum throughout the early-lactation period. Marked differences in the physico-chemical properties of colostrum compared with milk were observed. Various fractions of colostrum were also tested for their effect on the secretion of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines from a macrophage cell line and bone marrow dendritic cells, as well as insulin secretion from a pancreatic beta cell line. A significant reduction in the secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and IL-12, a significant increase in the secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10, as well as a significant increase in insulin secretion were observed for various colostrum fractions. Another study examined the early proteomic changes in the milk of 8 cows in response to infusion with the endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at quarter level in a model mastitic system; marked differences in the protein and peptide profile of milk from LPS challenged cows were observed, and a pH 4.6-soluble fraction of this milk was found to cause a substantial induction in the secretion of IL-10 from a murine macrophage cell line. Heat-induced hydrolysis of sodium caseinate was investigated from the dual viewpoints of protein breakdown and peptide formation, and, a peptide fraction produced in this manner was found to cause a significant increase in the secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10, from a murine macrophage cell line. The effects of sodium caseinate hydrolysed by chymosin on the gut-derived satiety hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) were investigated; the resulting casein-derived peptides displayed good in vitro and in vivo secretion of GLP-1. Overall, the studies described in this thesis expand on current knowledge and provide good evidence for the use of novel methods for the isolation, generation and characterisation of bioactive proteins and/or peptides.

Kassinakinin S: A novel histamine-releasing heptadecapeptide from frog (Kassina senegalensis) skin secretion

Amphibian defensive skin secretions remain a largely untapped resource for the peptide biochemist with an interest in the identification, structural characterization, and precursor cDNA cloning of novel bioactive peptides. Here we report the isolation, structural characterization, functional profiling, and nucleotide sequence of precursor cDNA of a novel histamine-releasing heptadecapeptide, FIPVTLLALHKIKEKLN-amide, from the defensive skin secretion of the African running frog, Kassina senegalensis. This peptide was found to be a potent histamine secretagogue (EC[5][0]=6 µM; maximal release = 25 µM) in a rat peritoneal mast cell model system and was accordingly named kassinakinin S. The open-reading frame of the cDNA encoding prepro-kassinakinin S was found to consist of 71 amino acid residues containing a single copy of kassinakinin S and its glycyl residue amide donor at the C-terminus. Kassinakinin S can thus be added to the growing list of amphibian skin bioactive peptide prototypes.

Cloning from tissue surrogates: antimicrobial peptide (esculentin) cDNAs from the defensive skin secretions of Chinese ranid frogs

The defensive skin secretions of amphibians are a rich source of bioactive peptides. Here we describe a rapid technique for skin granular gland transcriptome cloning from a surrogate tissue-the secretion itself. cDNA libraries were constructed from lyophilized skin secretion from each of the Chinese frogs (Rana schmackeri, Rana versabilis, and Rana plancyi fukienensis) using magnetic oligo(dT) bead-captured polyadenylated mRNA as templates. Specific esculentin cDNAs were amplified by 3'-RACE using a degenerate primer designed for a consensus nucleotide sequence in the 5' untranslated region of previously characterized ranid frog peptide cDNAs. The cloned cDNAs were found to encode the antimicrobial peptides esculentins 1 and 2 from each of the species examined. The presence of predicted peptide structures in skin secretions was confirmed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and automated Edman degradation. This experimental approach can thus rapidly expedite parallel transcriptome and peptidome analysis of amphibian granular gland secretions without harming or sacrificing donor animals.

Isolation and cloning of exendin precursor cDNAs from single samples of venom from the Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum) and the Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum)

Reptile venoms are complex cocktails of bioactive molecules, including peptides. While the drug discovery potential of most species remains unrealized, many are endangered and afforded protection under international treaties. In this study, we describe how potential clinically important bioactive peptides and their corresponding mRNAs can be structurally characterized from single, small samples of reptile venom. The potential type-2 diabetes therapeutics, exendin-3 and exendin-4, from the Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum) and the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum), respectively, have been characterized at both protein and nucleic acid levels to illustrate the efficacy of the technique and its contribution to biodiversity conservation.

Lividins: Novel antimicrobial peptide homologs from the skin secretion of the Chinese Large Odorous frog, Rana (Odorrana) livida: Identification by “shotgun” cDNA cloning and sequence analysis.

Odorous frogs of the sub-genus Odorrana are of oriental distribution, and are so called due to the foul smell of their defensive skin secretions released from specialized skin glands following stress or predator attack. Here we report the application of a “shotgun” skin secretion cDNA library cloning technique which can rapidly expedite identification of secretion bioactive peptides. From a library constructed from the skin secretion of the Large Chinese Odorous frog, Rana (Odorrana) livida, we have identified four novel peptides whose primary structures were deduced initially from cloned precursors. Subsequently, mature peptides were located in and structurally characterized from reverse phase HPLC fractions of skin secretion. Named lividins 1–4, these were found to be structural homologs of known antimicrobial peptide families from Rana frogs. Rapid identification of novel peptides can thus be rapidly achieved using this non-invasive, non-destructive technology and the extensive similarities revealed between antimicrobial peptide precursor organization and nucleic acid sequences would lend support to the hypothesis that they have a common ancestral origin.

Elements of the granular gland peptidome and transcriptome persist in air-dried skin of the South American orange-legged leaf frog, Phyllomedusa hypocondrialis.

The defensive strategy of amphibians against predator attack relies heavily on the secretion of noxious/toxic chemical cocktails from specialized skin granular glands. Bioactive peptides constitute a major component of secretions in many species and the most complex are produced by neotropical leaf frogs of the sub-family Phyllomedusinae. We recently reported that these skin secretions contain elements of both the granular gland peptidome and transcriptome and that polyadenylated mRNAs constituting the latter are protected from degradation by interactions with endogenous amphipathic peptides. This thus permits parallel amino acid sequencing of peptides and nucleic acid sequencing of cloned precursor transcripts from single lyophilized samples of secretion. Here we report that the protection afforded is sufficiently robust to permit transcriptome studies by cloning of full-length polyadenylated peptide precursor encoding mRNAs from libraries constructed using ambient temperature air-dried skin from recently deceased specimens as source material. The technique was sufficiently sensitive to permit the identification of cDNAs encoding antimicrobial peptides constituted by six different isoforms of phylloseptin and two dermaseptins. Also, for the first time, establishment of the nucleic acid and amino acid sequence of the precursor encoding the phyllomedusine frog skin bradykinin-related peptide, phyllokinin, from cloned cDNA, was achieved. These data unequivocally demonstrate that the granular gland transcriptome persists in air-dried amphibian skin—a finding that may have fundamental implications in the study of archived materials but also in the wider field of molecular biology.

PdT-2: a novel myotropic Type-2 tryptophyllin from the skin secretion of the Mexican giant leaf frog, Pachymedusa dacnicolor.

Amphibian skin secretions represent a unique resource for the discovery of new bioactive peptides. Here we report the isolation, structural and functional characterization of a novel heptapeptide amide, DMSPPWHamide, from the defensive skin secretion of the Mexican giant leaf frog, Pachymedusa dacnicolor. This peptide is of unique primary structure and has been classified as a member of the rather heterogenous tryptophyllin-2 (T-2) family of amphibian skin peptides and named P. dacnicolor Tryptophyllin-2 (PdT-2) in accordance. PdT-2 is the first Type 2-tryptophyllin to possess discrete bioactivity. Both natural and synthetic replicates of the peptide were found to contract the smooth muscle of rat urinary bladder, the latter displaying an EC50 of 4 nM.

Molecular cloning of the helokinestatin/CNP precursor from a venom-derived cDNA library of the Mexican beaded lizard, Heloderma horridum, and identification of a novel encoded bradykinin-antagonist peptide, helokinestatin-6

Helokinestatins 1–5 represent a novel family of bradykinin antagonist peptides originally isolated from the venom of the Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum. We found that they were encoded in tandem along with a single copy of C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), by two different but almost identical biosynthetic precursors that were cloned from a venom-derived cDNA library. Here we have applied the same strategy to the venom of a related species, the Mexican beaded lizard, Heloderma horridum. Lyophilised venom was used as a surrogate tissue to generate a cDNA library that was interrogated with primers from the previous study and for reverse phase HPLC fractionation. The structure of a single helokinestatin precursor was obtained following sequencing of 20 different clones. The open-reading frame contained 196 amino acid residues, somewhat greater than the 177–178 residues of the corresponding helokinestatin precursors in H. suspectum. The reason for this difference in size was the insertion of an additional domain of 18 amino acid residues encoding an additional copy of helokinestatin-3. Helokinestatin-6 (GPPFNPPPFVDYEPR) was a novel peptide from this precursor identified in venom HPLC fractions. A synthetic replicate of this peptide antagonised the relaxation effect of bradykinin on rat arterial smooth muscle. The novel peptide family, the helokinestatins, have been shown to be present in the venom of H. horridum and to be encoded by a single precursor of different structure to those from H. suspectum. Studies such as this reveal the naturally-selected structures of bioactive peptides that have been optimised for purpose and provide the scientist with a natural analogue library for pharmacological investigation.

GK-22 amide: a novel myotropic peptide from the skin secretion of the bamboo leaf odorous frog, Odorrana versabilis

The skin secretions produced by many amphibians are formidable chemical/biological weapons deployed as a defence against predators. Bioactive peptides are often the predominant class of biochemical within these secretions and the inventory of such remains incomplete with each individual taxon producing unique cocktails contained within which are some signature peptides, such as bradykinins and tachykinins. These secretions have been the source of many peptides subsequently found to have structural homologues in vertebrate neuroendocrine systems (bombesin/GRP; sauvagine/CRF; caerulein/CCK) and vice versa (bradykinin, CGRP, NMU). They are thus unequivocally intriguing resources for novel bioactive peptide discovery. Here we describe a novel 22-mer amidated peptide, named GK-22 amide (N-terminal Gly (G) and C-terminal Lys (K) amide) with an internal disulphide bridge between Cys (C) 11 and 20 from the skin secretion of Odorrana versabilis. Molecular cloning indicated that it is encoded as a single copy on a biosynthetic precursor of 59 amino acid residues consisting of a signal peptide, an acidic amino acid residue-rich spacer domain and a mature peptide encoding domain flanked N-terminally by a classical -Lys-Arg- (KR) propeptide convertase processing site and C-terminally by a Gly (G) residue amide donor. A synthetic replicate of this peptide produced potent and dose-dependent contraction of the smooth muscle of rat urinary bladder. GK-22 amide thus represents the prototype of a novel class of myotropic peptide from amphibian skin and its discovery illustrates the continuing potential of this resource to this end.

Construction of cDNA libraries from trifluoroacetic acid-solvated amphibian skin secretions: molecular cloning of multiple bombinin-like peptide precursor transcripts from a library of yellow-bellied toad (Bombina variegata) secretion

Amphibian skin secretions are renowned as complex mixtures of bioactive peptides many of which are analogues of endogenous regulatory peptides. While skin secretions can be obtained non-invasively for peptidome analysis, parallel studies on the granular gland transcriptome required specimen sacrifice. The aim of the present study was to analyse archived skin secretions to determine the robustness of bioactive peptide precursor-encoding polyadenylated mRNAs in an attempt to extract maximum molecular information from rare samples. A range of solvated skin secretion samples were examined after lyophilisation for their potential to generate viable and comprehensive cDNA libraries based upon polyadenylated mRNA capture and amplification/cloning using appropriate commercial kits. Here we present unequivocal data that the granular gland transcriptome persists in a PCR amenable format even after storage for as long as 12 years in 0.1%(v/v) aqueous trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). We used a pooled skin secretion sample (2 ml) from the yellow-bellied toad, Bombina variegata (n = 14), containing the equivalent of 5 mg/ml of lyophilised skin secretion, that had been used in part for peptide isolation purposes in 1998 and had been stored at - 20 °C since that time. In the first cloning experiment, 12 different bombinin-like peptide precursor cDNAs were cloned encoding 17 different bombinins, the majority of which were novel. Subsequently, bombesin and bradykinin-related peptide precursor transcripts have been cloned successfully. These data illustrate the unexpected stability/longevity of the transcriptome in these secretions — a finding with implications for both this field of research and for the wider field of molecular biology.

Kasstasin: A novel potent vasoconstrictor peptide from the skin secretion of the African red-legged running frog, Kassina maculata

Amphibian skin secretions are established sources of bioactive peptides. Here we describe the isolation, structural and pharmacological characterisation of a novel vasoconstrictor peptide from the skin secretion of the African hyperoliid frog, Kassina maculata, which exhibits no structural similarity to any known class of amphibian skin peptide. The peptide consists of 21 amino acid residues, FIKELLPHLSGIIDSVANAIK, and is C-terminally amidated. The provisional structure was obtained by MS/MS fragmentation using an Orbitrap mass spectrometer and L/I ambiguities were resolved following molecular cloning of biosynthetic precursor-encoding cDNA. A synthetic replicate of the peptide was found to possess weak antimicrobial and haemolytic activities but was exceptionally effective in constricting the smooth muscle of rat tail artery (EC50 of 25pM). In reflection of its exceptional potency in constricting rat arterial smooth muscle, the peptide was named kasstasin, a derivation of Kassina and “stasis” (stoppage of flow). These data illustrate the continuing potential of amphibian skin secretions to provide novel natural peptide templates for biological evaluation.

Parallel Peptidome and Transcriptome Analyses of Amphibian Skin Secretions Using Archived Frozen Acid-Solvated Samples

Amphibian skin secretions are unique sources of bioactive peptides and their donor species are currently rapidly disappearing from the biosphere. Here, we report that both peptides and polyadenylated mRNAs from skin granular glands remain amenable to study in samples of stimulated skin secretions following their storage in 0.1 % aqueous trifluoroacetic acid at -20 °C for many years. Frozen acidified solutions of toad (Bombina variegata) skin secretions, stored for 12 years, were thawed and samples removed for direct reverse phase HPLC fractionation. Additional samples were removed, snap frozen and lyophilised for construction of cDNA libraries following polyadenylated mRNA capture using magnetic oligo-dT beads and reverse transcription. Using the bombesin and bradykinin peptides found in bombinid toad skin as models, individual variant peptides of each type were located in reverse phase HPLC fractions and their corresponding biosynthetic precursor-encoding mRNA transcripts were cloned from the cDNA library using a RACE PCR strategy. This study illustrates unequivocally that both amphibian skin secretion peptides and their biosynthetic precursor-encoding polyadenylated mRNAs are stable in frozen acid-solvated skin secretion samples for considerable periods of time-a finding that may have fundamental implications in the study of archived materials but also in the wider field of molecular biology.

Vasorelaxin: A Novel Arterial Smooth Muscle-Relaxing Eicosapeptide from the Skin Secretion of the Chinese Piebald Odorous Frog (Odorrana schmackeri)

The defensive skin secretions of amphibians are a rich resource for the discovery of novel, bioactive peptides. Here we report the identification of a novel vascular smooth muscle-relaxing peptide, named vasorelaxin, from the skin secretion of the Chinese piebald odorous frog, Odorrana schmackeri. Vasorelaxin consists of 20 amino acid residues, SRVVKCSGFRPGSPDSREFC, with a disulfide-bridge between Cys-6 and Cys-20. The structure of its biosynthetic precursor was deduced from cloned skin cDNA and consists of 67 amino acid residues encoding a single copy of vasorelaxin (vasorelaxin, accession number: HE860494). Synthetic vasorelaxin caused a profound relaxation of rat arterial smooth muscle with an EC50 of 6.76 nM.