Análisis de la incidencia del White Paper, como herramienta de Política Exterior China, en las relaciones económicas y comerciales Sino-colombianas. Periodo 2008–2012

El propósito de este trabajo es analizar cuál ha sido la incidencia del White Paper, como herramienta de política exterior china, en las relaciones económicas y comerciales sino-colombianas entre los años 2008 y 2012. La mayoría del análisis se enfoca en los intercambios comerciales reflejados en la balanza comercial de ambos países y la incidencia que ha tenido el White Paper para la estabilización de una relación de acuerdo a los principios de su política exterior. Este trabajo busca describir los orígenes y la evolución de la relación económica y comercial bilateral y otros aspectos como los sectores que dinamizan tal relación de acuerdo a los intereses de China. Este trabajo describe las razones por las que, aunque la relación se ha fortalecido, hecho evidenciado en el incremento del flujo comercial, ésta sigue siendo desequilibrada y de dependencia.

(Table 1) Occurrences of volcanic ash at DSDP Leg 78A Holes

Air-fall volcanic ash recovered at Deep Sea Drilling Project Sites 541, 542, and 543 on and east of the toe of the Barbados Ridge delineate middle and late Miocene, early Pliocene, and Pleistocene-Quaternary pulses of explosive volcanism in the Lesser Antilles arc. The ash beds at Site 541 allow precise correlation of intervals repeated by a probable reverse fault at this convergent margin.

Trace element concentrations and Li isotope composition in DSDP and ODP sediments from island arcs

We have studied the sedimentary and basaltic inputs of lithium to subduction zones. Various sediments from DSDP and ODP drill cores in front of the Mariana, South Sandwich, Banda, East Sunda and Lesser Antilles island arcs have been analysed and show highly variable Li contents and d7Li values. The sediment piles in front of the Mariana and South Sandwich arcs largely consist of pelagic sediments (clays and oozes). The pelagic clays have high Li contents (up to 57.3 ppm) and Li isotope compositions ranging from +1.3? to +4.1?. The oozes have lower Li contents (7.3-16 ppm) with d7Li values of the diatom oozes from the South Sandwich lower (+2.8? to +3.2?) than those of the radiolarian oozes from the Mariana arc (+8.1? to +14.5?). Mariana sediment also contains a significant portion of volcanogenic material, which is characterised by a moderate Li content (14 ppm) and a relatively heavy isotope composition (+6.4?). Sediments from the Banda and Lesser Antilles contain considerable amounts of continental detritus, and have high Li contents (up to 74.3 ppm) and low d7Li values (around 0?), caused by weathering of continental bedrock. East Sunda sediments largely consist of calcareous oozes. These carbonate sediments display intermediate to high Li contents (2.4-41.9 ppm) and highly variable d7Li values (-1.6? to +12.8?). Basaltic oceanic crust samples from worldwide DSDP and ODP drill cores are characterised by enrichment of Li compared to fresh MORB (6.6-33.1 vs. 3.6-7.5 ppm, respectively), and show a large range in Li isotope compositions (+1.7? to +11.8?). The elemental and isotopic enrichment of Li in altered basalts is due to the uptake of isotopically heavy seawater Li during weathering. However, old oceanic crust samples from Sites 417/418 exhibit lighter Li isotope compositions compared to young basaltic crust samples from Sites 332B and 504B. This lighter Li isotope signature in old crust is unexpected and further research is needed to explore this issue.

Geochemistry and Nd-Pb isotope ratios of sediments from the Lesser Antilles arc

The Lesser Antilles arc is a particularly interesting island arc because it is presently very active, it is located perpendicular to the South American continent and its chemical and isotopic compositions display a strong north-south gradient. While the presence in the south of a thick pile of sedimentary material coming from the old South American continent has long been suspected to explain the geochemical gradient, previous studies failed to demonstrate unambiguously a direct link between the arc lava compositions and the subducted sediment compositions. Here, we present new Nd, Sm, Th, U and Pb concentrations and Nd-Pb isotopic data for over 60 sediments from three sites located in the fore arc region of the Lesser Antilles arc. New data for DSDP Site 543 drill core located east of Dominica Island complement the data published by White et al. (1985, doi:10.1016/0016-7037(85)90082-1) and confirm their relatively uniform isotopic compositions (i.e., 206Pb/204Pb between 19.13 and 19.53). In contrast, data obtained on DSDP Site 144 located further south, on the edge of the South American Rise and on sediments from Barbados Island are much more variable (206Pb/204Pb ranges from 18.81 to 27.69). The very radiogenic Pb isotopic compositions are found in a 60 m thick black shale unit, which has no age equivalent in the Site 543 drill core. We interpret the peculiar composition of the southern sediments as being due to two factors, (a) the proximity of the South American craton, which contributes coarse grain old detrital material that does not travel far from the continental shelf, and (b) the presence of older sediments including the thick black shale unit formed during Oceanic Anoxic events 2 and 3. The north-south isotopic change known along the Lesser Antilles arc can be explained by the observed geographical changes in the composition of the subducted sediments. About 1% contamination of the mantle wedge by Site 543 sediments explains the composition of the northern islands while up to 10% sediments like those of Site 144 is required in the source of the southern island lavas. The presence of black shales in the subducted pile provides a satisfactory explanation for the very low Delta8/4 values that characterize the Lesser Antilles arc.

Major-oxides and trace-elements at DSDP Hole 78-543A

Four chemically distinct basalts were cored in 44 m of basement penetration at Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 543, in Upper Cretaceous crust just seaward of the deformation front of the Barbados Ridge and north of the Tiburon Rise. All four types are moderately fractionated abyssal tholeiites. The four types have different magnetic inclinations, all of reversed polarity, suggesting eruption at different times which recorded secular variation of the earth's magnetic field. Extensive replacement of Plagioclase by K-feldspar has occurred at the top of the basalts, giving analyses with K2O contents up to 5 %. The earliest stages of alteration were dominantly oxidative, resulting in fractures lined with celadonite and dioctahedral smectite, and pervasive replacement of olivine and most intersertal glass with iron hydroxides and green clay minerals. Latef, non-oxidative alteration resulted in formation of olive-green clays and pyrite veins in a portion of the rocks. Basalts affected by this alteration actually lost K2O (to abundances lower than in adjacent fresh basalt glasses), and gained MgO (to abundances higher than in the glasses). Finally, fractures and interpillow voids were lined with calcite, sealing in much fresh glass. Oxygen-isotope measurements on the calcite indicate that this occurred at 12 to 25C. Either altering fluids were warm or the basalts had become buried with a considerable thickness of sediments, such that temperatures increased until a conductive thermal gradient was established, when the veining occurred.

Foraminiferal species and dissolution index at DSDP Hole 78-541

The calcite compensation depth (CCD) fluctuates as a result of changes in the water-mass system, thereby producing a distinct dissolution pattern. Differential dissolution changes the composition of the foraminiferal assemblages, reflecting the depositional environment in respect to the fluctuating CCD. The dissolution pattern for the comparatively shallow Site 541 on the Barbados Ridge indicates a depositional environment mostly above the CCD, but below the foraminiferal lysocline during the late Miocene to early Pleistocene. In contrast, sediments of the deeper-water Site 543 indicate a depositional environment above the CCD during the late Pliocene to early Pleistocene only. Furthermore, similarities in the dissolution pattern of corresponding time intervals of Site 541 (represented by superimposed faulted intervals termed Tectonic Units A and B) are recognizable. Sediments deposited clearly above the foraminiferal lysocline are rare

Geochemistry and trace elements at DSDP Hole 78-543A

The upper part of the basaltic substratum of the Atlantic abyssal plain, approaching subduction beneath the Barbados Ridge and thus presumably beneath the Lesser Antilles island arc, is made of typical LREE-depleted oceanic tholeiites. Mineralogical (microprobe) and geochemical (X-ray fluorescence, neutron activation analyses) data are given for 12 samples from the bottom of Hole 543A, which is 3.5 km seaward of the deformation front of the Barbados Ridge complex. These basalts are overlain by a Quaternary to Maestrichtian-Campanian sedimentary sequence. Most of the basalts are relatively fresh (in spite of the alteration of olivine and development of some celadonite, clays, and chlorite in their groundmass), and their mineralogical and geochemical compositions are similar to those of LREE-depleted recent basalts from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The most altered samples occur at the top of the basaltic sequence, and show trends of enrichment in alkali metals typical of altered oceanic tholeiites.