Endangerment and Likeability of Wildlife Species: How Important are they for Payments Proposed for Conservation?

This paper examines empirically the relative influence of the degree of endangerment of wildlife species and their stated likeability on individuals' allocation of funds for their conservation. To do this, it utilises data obtained from the IUCN Red List, and likeability and fund allocation data obtained from two serial surveys of a sample of the Australian public who were requested to assess 24 Australian wildlife species from three animal classes: mammals, birds and reptiles. Between the first and second survey, respondents were provided with extra information about the focal species. This information resulted in the dominance of endangerment as the major influence on the allocation of funding of respondents for the conservation of the focal wildlife species. Our results throw doubts on the proposition in the literature that the likeability of species is the dominant influence on willingness to pay for conservation of wildlife species. Furthermore, because the public's allocation of fund for conserving wildlife species seems to be more sensitive to information about the conservation status of species than to factors influencing their likeability, greater attention to providing accurate information about the former than the latter seems justified. Keywords: Conservation of wildlife species; Contingent valuation; Endangerment of species; Likeability of species; Willingness to pay

Vibrational spectroscopy of phthalocyanine and naphthalocyanine in sandwich-type (na)phthalocyaninato and porphyrinato rare earth complexes: Part 14. The infrared and Raman characteristics of phthalocyanine in “pinwheel-like” homoleptic bis[1,8,15,22-tetrakis(3-pentyloxy)phthalocyaninato] rare earth(III) double-decker complexes

The infrared (IR) spectroscopic data and Raman spectroscopic properties for a series of 13 “pinwheel-like” homoleptic bis(phthalocyaninato) rare earth complexes M[Pc(α-OC5H11)4]2 [M = Y and Pr–Lu except Pm; H2Pc(α-OC5H11)4 = 1,8,15,22-tetrakis(3-pentyloxy)phthalocyanine] have been collected and comparatively studied. Both the IR and Raman spectra for M[Pc(α-OC5H11)4]2 are more complicated than those of homoleptic bis(phthalocyaninato) rare earth analogues, namely M(Pc)2 and M[Pc(OC8H17)8]2, but resemble (for IR) or are a bit more complicated (for Raman) than those of heteroleptic counterparts M(Pc)[Pc(α-OC5H11)4], revealing the decreased molecular symmetry of these double-decker compounds, namely S8. Except for the obvious splitting of the isoindole breathing band at 1110–1123 cm−1, the IR spectra of M[Pc(α-OC5H11)4]2 are quite similar to those of corresponding M(Pc)[Pc(α-OC5H11)4] and therefore are similarly assigned. With laser excitation at 633 nm, Raman bands derived from isoindole ring and aza stretchings in the range of 1300–1600 cm−1 are selectively intensified. The IR spectra reveal that the frequencies of pyrrole stretching and pyrrole stretching coupled with the symmetrical CH bending of –CH3 groups are sensitive to the rare earth ionic size, while the Raman technique shows that the bands due to the isoindole stretchings and the coupled pyrrole and aza stretchings are similarly affected. Nevertheless, the phthalocyanine monoanion radical Pc′− IR marker band of bis(phthalocyaninato) complexes involving the same rare earth ion is found to shift to lower energy in the order M(Pc)2 > M(Pc)[Pc(α-OC5H11)4] > M[Pc(α-OC5H11)4]2, revealing the weakened π–π interaction between the two phthalocyanine rings in the same order.

Raman spectroscopy of kaolinites using different excitation wavelengths

The Raman spectra of both low- and high-defect kaolinites in the hydroxyl stretching and low-wavenumber region were obtained with excitation at three visible wavelengths of 633, 514 and 442 nm and a UV wavelength of 325 nm. The UV-excited spectra were comparable to those excited by the visible wavelengths. The Raman spectra show hydroxyl stretching bands at 3621 cm-1 attributed to the inner hydroxyl, at 3692 and 3684 cm-1 attributed to the longitudinal and transverse optic modes of the inner surface hydroxyls and at 3668 and 3653 cm-1 assigned to the out-of phase vibrations of the inner surface hydroxyls. Two bands were observed in the spectral profile at 3695 cm-1 for the high-defect kaolinite at 3698 and 3691 cm-1 and were assigned to TO/LO splitting. An increase in relative intensity of the transverse optic mode is observed with decrease in laser wavelength. The intensity of the out-of-phase vibrations at 3668 and 3653 cm-1 of the inner surface hydroxyls shows a linear relationship with the longitudinal and transverse optic modes. In the low-wavenumber region excellent correlation was found between the experimentally determined and the calculated band positions.

Imagery and strength of craving for eating, drinking and playing sport

The elaborated intrusion (EI) theory of desire (Kavanagh, Andrade, & May, 2005) attributes the motivational force of cravings to cognitive elaboration, including imagery, of apparently spontaneous thoughts that intrude into awareness. We report a questionnaire study in which respondents rated a craving for food or drink. Questionnaire items derived from EI theory formed a single factor alongside factors for anticipated reward/relief, resistance, and opportunity. In a multiple regression predicting strength of craving, the first three factors accounted for 36% of the variance. Opportunity did not enter the model. In a second study, the difference between individuals' strong and weak cravings to take part in a sporting activity was shown to be related to visual, auditory, and general imagery, and to anticipated reward or relief from engaging in the activity. Implications for treatment of craving-related disorders are discussed in the light of these results and of other research indicating that interference with imagery can reduce the strength of craving.

Studies of the radiation chemistry and grafting of a fluoropolymer

The radiation chemistry and the grafting of a fluoropolymer, poly(tetrafluoroethylene-coperfluoropropyl vinyl ether) (PFA), was investigated with the aim of developing a highly stable grafted support for use in solid phase organic chemistry (SPOC). A radiation-induced grafting method was used whereby the PFA was exposed to ionizing radiation to form free radicals capable of initiating graft copolymerization of styrene. To fully investigate this process, both the radiation chemistry of PFA and the grafting of styrene to PFA were examined. Radiation alone was found to have a detrimental effect on PFA when irradiated at 303 K. This was evident from the loss in the mechanical properties due to chain scission reactions. This meant that when radiation was used for the grafting reactions, the total radiation dose needed to be kept as low as possible. The radicals produced when PFA was exposed to radiation were examined using electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Both main-chain (–CF2–C.F–CF2-) and end-chain (–CF2–C.F2) radicals were identified. The stability of the majority of the main-chain radicals when the polymer was heated above the glass transition temperature suggested that they were present mainly in the crystalline regions of the polymer, while the end-chain radicals were predominately located in the amorphous regions. The radical yield at 77 K was lower than the radical yield at 303 K suggesting that cage recombination at low temperatures inhibited free radicals from stabilizing. High-speed MAS 19F NMR was used to identify the non-volatile products after irradiation of PFA over a wide temperature range. The major products observed over the irradiation temperature 303 to 633 K included new saturated chain ends, short fluoromethyl side chains in both the amorphous and crystalline regions, and long branch points. The proportion of the radiolytic products shifted from mainly chain scission products at low irradiation temperatures to extensive branching at higher irradiation temperatures. Calculations of G values revealed that net crosslinking only occurred when PFA was irradiated in the melt. Minor products after irradiation at elevated temperatures included internal and terminal double bonds and CF3 groups adjacent to double bonds. The volatile products after irradiation at 303 K included tetrafluoromethane (CF4) and oxygen-containing species from loss of the perfluoropropyl ether side chains of PFA as identified by mass spectrometry and FTIR spectroscopy. The chemical changes induced by radiation exposure were accompanied by changes in the thermal properties of the polymer. Changes in the crystallinity and thermal stability of PFA after irradiation were examined using DSC and TGA techniques. The equilibrium melting temperature of untreated PFA was 599 K as determined using a method of extrapolation of the melting temperatures of imperfectly formed crystals. After low temperature irradiation, radiation- induced crystallization was prevalent due to scission of strained tie molecules, loss of perfluoropropyl ether side chains, and lowering of the molecular weight which promoted chain alignment and hence higher crystallinity. After irradiation at high temperatures, the presence of short and long branches hindered crystallization, lowering the overall crystallinity. The thermal stability of the PFA decreased with increasing radiation dose and temperature due to the introduction of defect groups. Styrene was graft copolymerized to PFA using -radiation as the initiation source with the aim of preparing a graft copolymer suitable as a support for SPOC. Various grafting conditions were studied, such as the total dose, dose rate, solvent effects and addition of nitroxides to create “living” graft chains. The effect of dose rate was examined when grafting styrene vapour to PFA using the simultaneous grafting method. The initial rate of grafting was found to be independent of the dose rate which implied that the reaction was diffusion controlled. When the styrene was dissolved in various solvents for the grafting reaction, the graft yield was strongly dependent of the type and concentration of the solvent used. The greatest graft yield was observed when the solvent swelled the grafted layers and the substrate. Microprobe Raman spectroscopy was used to map the penetration of the graft into the substrate. The grafted layer was found to contain both poly(styrene) (PS) and PFA and became thicker with increasing radiation dose and graft yield which showed that grafting began at the surface and progressively penetrated the substrate as the grafted layer was swollen. The molecular weight of the grafted PS was estimated by measuring the molecular weight of the non-covalently bonded homopolymer formed in the grafted layers using SEC. The molecular weight of the occluded homopolymer was an order of magnitude greater than the free homopolymer formed in the surrounding solution suggesting that the high viscosity in the grafted regions led to long PS grafts. When a nitroxide mediated free radical polymerization was used, grafting occurred within the substrate and not on the surface due to diffusion of styrene into the substrate at the high temperatures needed for the reaction to proceed. Loading tests were used to measure the capacity of the PS graft to be functionialized with aminomethyl groups then further derivatized. These loading tests showed that samples grafted in a solution of styrene and methanol had superior loading capacity over samples graft using other solvents due to the shallow penetration and hence better accessibility of the graft when methanol was used as a solvent.

Thermogravimetric analysis of selected coal-bearing strata kaolinite

Two kinds of coal-bearing kaolinite from China were analysed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Thermogravimetric analysis-mass spectrometry (TG-MS), infrared emission spectroscopy. Thermal decomposition occurs in a series of steps attributed to (a) desorption of water at 68 °C for Datong coal bearing strata kaolinite and 56 °C for Xiaoxian with mass losses of 0.36 % and 0.51 % (b) decarbonization at 456 °C for Datong coal bearing strata kaolinite and 431 °C for Xiaoxian kaolinite, (c) dehydroxylation takes place in two steps at 589 and 633 °C for Datong coal bearing strata kaolinite and at 507 °C and 579 °C for Xiaoxian kaolinite. This mineral were further characterised by infrared emission spectroscopy (IES). Well defined hydroxyl stretching bands at around 3695, 3679, 3652 and 3625 cm-1 are observed. At 650 °C all intensity in these bands is lost in harmony with the thermal analysis results. Characteristic functional groups from coal are observed at 1918, 1724 and 1459 cm-1. The intensity of these bands decrease by thermal treatment and is lost by 700 °C.

Gene transfer to plants by diverse species of bacteria

Agrobacterium is widely considered to be the only bacterial genus capable of transferring genes to plants. When suitably modified, Agrobacterium has become the most effective vector for gene transfer in plant biotechnology1. However, the complexity of the patent landscape2 has created both real and perceived obstacles to the effective use of this technology for agricultural improvements by many public and private organizations worldwide. Here we show that several species of bacteria outside the Agrobacterium genus can be modified to mediate gene transfer to a number of diverse plants. These plant-associated symbiotic bacteria were made competent for gene transfer by acquisition of both a disarmed Ti plasmid and a suitable binary vector. This alternative to Agrobacterium-mediated technology for crop improvement, in addition to affording a versatile ‘open source’ platform for plant biotechnology, may lead to new uses of natural bacteria– plant interactions to achieve plant transformation.

Comparing exercise prescribed with exercise completed : effects of gender and mode of exercise

The purpose of this study was to compare the amount of exercise prescribed with the amount completed between two different modes of training intervention and between the sexes. Thirty-two men (mean age = 39.1 years, body mass index = 32.9 kg · m-2) and women (mean age = 39.6 years, body mass index = 32.1 kg · m-2) were prescribed traditional resistance training or light-resistance circuit training for 16 weeks. Lean mass and fat mass were determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at weeks 1 and 16. A completion index was calculated to provide a measure of the extent to which participants completed exercise training relative to the amount of exercise prescribed. The absolute amount of exercise completed by the circuit training group was significantly greater than the amount prescribed (P < 0.0001). The resistance training group consistently under-completed relative to the amount prescribed, but the difference was not significant. The completion index for the circuit training group (26 ± 21.7%) was significantly different from that of the resistance training group (-7.4 ± 3.0%). The completion index was not significantly different between men and women in either group. These data suggest that overweight and obese individuals participating in light-resistance circuit training complete more exercise than is prescribed. Men and women do not differ in the extent to which they over- or under-complete prescribed exercise.

The concept of 'Organismic Asymmetry' in sport science

The concept of organismic asymmetry refers to an inherent bias for seeking explanations of human performance and behaviour based on internal mechanisms and referents. A weakness in this tendency is a failure to consider the performer–environment relationship as the relevant scale of analysis. In this paper we elucidate the philosophical roots of the bias and discuss implications of organismic asymmetry for sport science and performance analysis, highlighting examples in psychology, sports medicine and biomechanics.

Cell density alters matrix accumulation in two distinct fractions and the mechanical integrity of alginate-chondrocyte constructs

Chondrocyte density in articular cartilage is known to change with the development and growth of the tissue and may play an important role in the formation of a functional extracellular matrix (ECM). The objective of this study was to determine how initial chondrocyte density in an alginate hydrogel affects the matrix composition, its distribution between the cell-associated (CM) and further removed matrix (FRM) fractions, and the tensile mechanical properties of the developing engineered cartilage. Alginate constructs containing primary bovine chondrocytes at densities of 0, 4, 16, and 64 million cells/ml were fabricated and cultured for 1 or 2 weeks, at which time structural, biochemical, and mechanical properties were analyzed. Both matrix content and distribution varied with the initial cell density. Increasing cell density resulted in an increasing content of collagen and sulfated-glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and an increasing proportion of these molecules localized in the CM. While the equilibrium tensile modulus of cell-free alginate did not change with time in culture, the constructs with highest cell density were 116% stiffer than cell-free controls after 2 weeks of culture. The equilibrium tensile modulus was positively correlated with total collagen (r2 = 0.47, p < 0.001) and GAG content (r2 = 0.68, p < 0.001), and these relationships were enhanced when analyzing only those matrix molecules in the CM fraction (r2 = 0.60 and 0.72 for collagen and GAG, respectively, each p < 0.001). Overall, the results of this study indicate that initial cell density has a considerable effect on the developing composition, structure, and function of alginate–chondrocyte constructs.

Fault diagnostics and supervised testing : How fault diagnostic tools can be proactive?

The topic of fault detection and diagnostics (FDD) is studied from the perspective of proactive testing. Unlike most research focus in the diagnosis area in which system outputs are analyzed for diagnosis purposes, in this paper the focus is on the other side of the problem: manipulating system inputs for better diagnosis reasoning. In other words, the question of how diagnostic mechanisms can direct system inputs for better diagnosis analysis is addressed here. It is shown how the problem can be formulated as decision making problem coupled with a Bayesian Network based diagnostic mechanism. The developed mechanism is applied to the problem of supervised testing in HVAC systems.