Social ventures : the development of the theory of sustainable contributive advantage and initial empirical tests

This thesis attempts to fill gaps in both a theoretical basis and an operational and strategic understanding in the areas of social ventures, social entrepreneurship and nonprofit business models. This study also attempts to bridge the gap in strategic and economic theory between social and commercial ventures. More specifically, this thesis explores sustainable competitive advantage from a resource-based theory perspective and explores how it may be applied to the nonmarket situation of nonprofit organizations and social ventures. It is proposed that a social value-orientation of sustainable competitive advantage, called sustainable contributive advantage, provides a more realistic depiction of what is necessary in order for a social venture to perform better than its competitors over time. In addition to providing this realistic depiction, this research provides a substantial theoretical contribution in the area of economics, social ventures, and strategy research, specifically in regards to resource-based theory. The proposed model for sustainable contributive advantage uses resource-based theory and competitive advantage in order to be applicable to social ventures. This model proposes an explanation of a social venture’s ability to demonstrate consistently superior performance. In order to determine whether sustainable competitive advantage is in fact, appropriate to apply to both social and economic environments, quantitative analyses are conducted on a large sample of nonprofit organizations in a single industry and then compared to similar quantitative analyses conducted on commercial ventures. In comparing the trends and strategies between the two types of entities from a quantitative perspective, propositions are developed regarding a social venture’s resource utilization strategies and their possible impact on performance. Evidence is found to support the necessity of adjusting existing models in resource-based theory in order to apply them to social ventures. Additionally supported is the proposed theory of sustainable contributive advantage. The thesis concludes with recommendations for practitioners, researchers and policy makers as well as suggestions for future research paths.

Sotilaslentäjän fyysinen suorituskyky sekä työperäiset tuki- ja liikuntaelinoireet

Kirjallisuudesta välittyy useitten vuosikymmenten ajalta tietämys sotilaslentämisen fyysisestä kuormittavuudesta. G-voimista aiheutuva kuormittuminen näyttää johtavan joko akuutisti tai pitkäaikaisesti lentäjän tuki- ja liikuntaelimistön toimintakykyä alentaviin ongelmiin. Erityisesti on selvitetty niskan alueen työperäisten ongelmien syntyä, jolloin on havaittu lentotoiminnan fyysisen kuormittavuuden johtavan ennenaikaiseen rakenteelliseen rappeumaan, haittaa aiheuttavan oireen lisäksi. Kansainvälisen kirjallisuuden mukaan ammatista johtuvista eli työperäisistä oireista kärsii vähintään 2/3 kaikista sotilaslentäjistä. Tietyin edellytyksin lentäjien kaularangan alueen rappeuma on Suomessa hyväksytty ammattitaudiksi vuodesta 1995 alkaen. On arveltu, että hyvästä fyysisestä suorituskyvystä olisi apua tuki- ja liikuntaelin (TULE)-oireilun ennaltaehkäisemisessä ja toimintakyvyn ylläpitämisessä. Tutkimusnäyttö tästä on lentäjien osalta ollut toistaiseksi erittäin niukkaa. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää suomalaisten sotilaslentäjien työperäisen TULE-oireilun esiintyvyyttä, oireista koetun haitan tasoa, lentäjien fyysisen kunnon tasoja virkauran aikana ja näitten kaikkien välisiä yhteyksiä sekä työperäisen TULE-oireen merkitystä sotilaan toimintakykyyn. Tutkimus jakautui kahteen osaan. Poikkileikkauksena lentotoimintaperäisiä TULE-oireita kartoitettiin kyselytutkimuksella, johon vastasi vuositarkastuksen yhteydessä 267 lentäjää vuosina 2004-2005. Joukosta poimittiin ne 195 lentäjää, jotka olivat suorittaneet yleissotilaalliset kuntotestit puolen vuoden sisällä kyselyyn vastaamisesta, ja mitatut testitulokset yhdistettiin kyselytutkimusaineistoon. Tässä aineistossa toteutettiin fyysisesti erilailla kuormittuvien lentäjäryhmien välisiä vertailuja fyysisen kunnon, TULE-esiintyvyyden ja koetun haitan suhteen. Poikkileikkausosassa tutkittiin myös lentäjien virkauran aikaisia tasoeroja yleissotilaallisissa kuntotesteissä (n=195) verrattuna muihin suomalaisiin sotilaisiin. Lisäksi (N=289) selvitettiin ilmailulääketieteellisen tarkastuksen yhteydessä mitattuja, ns. ammatillisia fyysisiä erityisominaisuuksia eri ikäluokissa. Pitkittäisosassa seurattiin 67:n Hawk-suihkuharjoituskoneella aloittaneen Ilmavoimien sotilaslentäjien lentouran aikaista lentotoimintaperäisten TULE-oireitten esiintyvyyttä vuosien 1996 ja 2008 välillä. Lisäksi tutkittiin lentäjien kontakteja työterveyshuoltoon, oireen aiheuttamaa lentokelvottomuusaikaa, työn kuormituksen kumulatiivista kertymää lentotuntien lisääntyessä ja TULE-oireiden esiintyvyyden kannalta kriittisiä ajankohtia lentouran aikana. Tulokset osoittivat, että kaikki seurannassa olleet suomalaiset sotilaslentäjät kokivat jonkinasteisen lentotoimintaperäisen TULE-oireen uransa aikana. Niskan ammattitautiluokituksen tasoisen ongelman esiintyvyys oli 4 % koko lentäjäpopulaatiosta ja 10 % suihkuharjoituskonevaiheen jo läpäisseistä, mutta vastaavanlaisia TULE-ongelmia, ilman riittävää näyttöä ammattitaudista, esiintyi lähes joka kolmannella sotilaslentäjällä. Alaselän osalta lentäjät oireilivat lähes samassa määrin, mutta näitä oireita ei toistaiseksi ole mahdollista määrittää ammattitaudiksi. Lentäjät kävivät varsin vähän valittamassa oireistaan työterveyshuoltoon, jossa käytäneen vasta silloin, kun oire jo selvästi heikentää työtehtävissä vaadittavaa toimintakykyä. Merkittävin lentotoimintaperäisten oireitten esiintymisen kasvu ajoittui 200 Hawk-lentotunnin kohdalle, jolloin koneella saavutetaan eräänlainen optimaalinen G-indeksi eli taktisen liikehtelyn G-tasoylitysten vaihtelu. Tämän jälkeen lentäjät ovat erityisen alttiina akuuteille lennonaikaisille TULE-ongelmille. Oireitten esiintyminen kasvoi eksponentiaalisesti noin 600 lentotuntiin asti. Monimuuttujamallien mukaan työperäisen TULE-oireen esiintyvyysriskiä vähensivät alaraajojen hyvä motoriikka, korkeat valintapisteet ja korkea kaulan fleksion voimataso maksimaalisessa isometrisessä testissä. Yleissotilaallisilla kuntotasoilla ei ollut yhteyttä oireiluun, mutta lihaskunnoltaan voimakkaimmat lentäjät kärsivät tilastollisesti merkittävästi vähemmän haittaa lentotoimintaperäisistä TULE-oireistaan. Yleissotilaallisissa kuntotesteissä lentäjät olivat parempia kuin muut suomalaiset sotilaat. Aktiivisimman lentouran aikana, 30-40-vuotiaina, lentäjien fyysinen suorituskyky oli normaaliväestöön nähden vain keskimääräinen ja urheilijoihin nähden keskimääräistä heikompi. Käytännössä lentäjät eivät kyenneet ylläpitämään valintavaiheen fyysistä suorituskykyään edes kadettivaiheen loppuun asti. Huomattavaa oli lisäksi, että aktiivisen lentouran päätyttyä fyysinen kunto näytti jossain määrin palautuvan kohti lähtötasoa lentäjien ikääntymisestä huolimatta. Lentäjien valintavaiheen aikana mitatun fyysisen suorituskyvyn tason säilyminen aktiivisen lentopalveluksen loppuun asti vaatisi lentäjien fyysisen toimintakyvyn ylläpidon ja kehittämisen tehostamista koulutuksen ja työuran eri vaihessa. Tähän tavoitteeseen nähden Ilmavoimien fyysisen kasvatuksen järjestelyt vaikuttivat alimitoitetuilta. Operatiivisesti huolestuttavaa oli Ilmavoimien ohjaajien fyysisen suorituskyvyn heikentyminen silloin, kun heidän taitojensa puolesta olisi pitänyt olla suorituskykyisimpiä taistelutehtäviinsä. Myös lentäjän terveyttä ja toimintakykyä pitäisi pystyä reaaliaikaisemmin seuraamaan koko lentouran aikana. Ilmavoimille suositellaan moniammatillista lähestymistä sotilaslentäjien toimintakyvyn ylläpitämiseen ja terveysriskien hallintaan yhdessä liikunnan, työterveyshuollon, lentoturvallisuusalan ja operatiivisen suunnittelun asiantuntijoitten kanssa. Lisäksi suositellaan avoimempaa ja eettisesti kestävämpää suhtautumista ammattiin liittyvien terveysongelmien kuvaamiseen sekä fyysisen kunnon kysymyksiin jo lentäjien rekrytointivaiheessa.

Quality Indicators of Cervical Cytopathology Tests in the Public Service in Minas Gerais, Brazil

Objective The objective of this study is to assess the performance of cytopathology laboratories providing services to the Brazilian Unified Health System (Sistema Único de Saúde - SUS) in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Methods This descriptive study uses data obtained from the Cervical Cancer Information System from January to December 2012. Three quality indicators were analyzed to assess the quality of cervical cytopathology tests: positivity index, percentage of atypical squamous cells (ASCs) in abnormal tests, and percentage of tests compatiblewith high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs). Laboratories were classified according to their production scale in tests per year≤5,000; from 5,001 to 10,000; from 10,001 to 15,000; and 15,001. Based on the collection of variables and the classification of laboratories according to production scale, we created and analyzed a database using Microsoft Office Excel 97-2003. Results In the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, 146 laboratories provided services to the SUS in 2012 by performing a total of 1,277,018 cervical cytopathology tests. Half of these laboratories had production scales≤5,000 tests/year and accounted for 13.1% of all tests performed in the entire state; in turn, 13.7% of these laboratories presented production scales of > 15,001 tests/year and accounted for 49.2% of the total of tests performed in the entire state. The positivity indexes of most laboratories providing services to the SUS in 2012, regardless of production scale, were below or well below recommended limits. Of the 20 laboratories that performed more than 15,001 tests per year, only three presented percentages of tests compatible with HSILs above the lower limit recommended by the Brazilian Ministry of Health. Conclusion The majority of laboratories providing services to the SUS in Minas Gerais presented quality indicators outside the range recommended by the Brazilian Ministry of Health.

Predictive Capability of HPV and Pap Tests in Screening for Cervical Cancer over a Three-Year Follow-up

Purpose To compare the predictive capability of HPV and Pap smear tests for screening pre-cancerous lesions of the cervix over a three-year follow-up, in a population of users of the Brazilian National Health System (SUS). Methods This is a retrospective cohort study of 2,032 women with satisfactory results for Pap smear and HPV tests using second-generation hybrid capture,made in a previous study. We followed them for 36 months with data obtained from medical records, the Cervix Cancer Information System (SISCOLO), and the Mortality Information System (SIM). The outcome was a histological diagnosis of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or more advanced lesions (CIN2ş). We constructed progression curves of the baseline test results for the period, using the Kaplan-Meier method, and estimated sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value, and positive and negative likelihood ratios for each test. Results A total of 1,440 women had at least one test during follow-up. Progression curves of the baseline test results indicated differences in capability to detect CIN2ş (p < 0.001) with significantly greater capability when both tests were abnormal, followed by only a positive HPV test. The HPV test was more sensitive than the Pap smear (88.7% and 73.6%, respectively; p < 0.05) and had a better negative likelihood ratio (0.13 and 0.30, respectively). Specificity and positive likelihood ratio of the tests were similar. Conclusions These findings corroborate the importance of HPV test as a primary cervical cancer screening.

Performance of active portfolio management and the effect of stock market trend

Purpose of the study is to evaluate performance of active portfolio management and the effect of stock market trend on the performance. Theory of efficient markets states that market prices reflect all available information and that all investors share a common view of future price developments. This view gives little room for the success of active management, but the theory has been disputed – at least the level of efficiency. Behavioral finance has developed theories that identify irrational behavior patterns of investors. For example, investment decisions are not made independent of past market developments. These findings give reason to believe that also the performance of active portfolio management may depend on market developments. Performance of 16 Finnish equity funds is evaluated during the period of 2005 to 2011. In addition two sub periods are constructed, a bull market period and a bear market period. The sub periods are created by joining together the two bull market phases and the two bear market phases of the whole period. This allows for the comparison of the two different market states. Performance of the funds is measured with risk-adjusted performance by Modigliani and Modigliani (1997), abnormal return over the CAPM by Jensen (1968), and market timing by Henriksson and Merton (1981). The results suggested that in average the funds are not able to outperform the market portfolio. However, the underperformance was found to be lower than the management fees in average which suggests that portfolio managers are able to do successful investment decisions to some extent. The study revealed substantial dependence on the market trend for all of the measures. The risk-adjusted performance measure suggested that in bear markets active portfolio managers in average are able to beat the market portfolio but not in bull markets. Jensen´s alpha and the market timing model also showed striking differences between the two market states. The results of these two measures were, however, somewhat problematic and reliable conclusions about the performance could not be drawn.

Accuracy Analysis of Frequency Converter Estimates in Diagnostic Applications

Transportation of fluids is one of the most common and energy intensive processes in the industrial and HVAC sectors. Pumping systems are frequently subject to engineering malpractice when dimensioned, which can lead to poor operational efficiency. Moreover, pump monitoring requires dedicated measuring equipment, which imply costly investments. Inefficient pump operation and improper maintenance can increase energy costs substantially and even lead to pump failure. A centrifugal pump is commonly driven by an induction motor. Driving the induction motor with a frequency converter can diminish energy consumption in pump drives and provide better control of a process. In addition, induction machine signals can also be estimated by modern frequency converters, dispensing with the use of sensors. If the estimates are accurate enough, a pump can be modelled and integrated into the frequency converter control scheme. This can open the possibility of joint motor and pump monitoring and diagnostics, thereby allowing the detection of reliability-reducing operating states that can lead to additional maintenance costs. The goal of this work is to study the accuracy of rotational speed, torque and shaft power estimates calculated by a frequency converter. Laboratory tests were performed in order to observe estimate behaviour in both steady-state and transient operation. An induction machine driven by a vector-controlled frequency converter, coupled with another induction machine acting as load was used in the tests. The estimated quantities were obtained through the frequency converter’s Trend Recorder software. A high-precision, HBM T12 torque-speed transducer was used to measure the actual values of the aforementioned variables. The effect of the flux optimization energy saving feature on the estimate quality was also studied. A processing function was developed in MATLAB for comparison of the obtained data. The obtained results confirm the suitability of this particular converter to provide accurate enough estimates for pumping applications.

Bus bar aeolian vibration field tests

Large amplitude bus bar aeolian vibration may lead to post insulator damage. Different damping applications are used to decrease the risk of large amplitude aeolian vibration. In this paper the post insulator load caused by the bus bar aeolian vibration and the effect of damping methods are evaluated. The effects of three types of bus bar connectors and three types of primary structures are studied. Two actual damping devices, damping cable and their combinations are studied. The post insulator loads are studied with strain gage based custom made force sensors installed on the both ends of the post insulator and with the displacement sensor installed on the midpoint of the bus bar. The post insulator loads are calculated from the strain values and the damping properties are determined from the displacement history. The bus bar is deflected with a hanging weight. The weight is released and the bus bar is left to free damped vibration. Both actual bus bar vibration dampers RIBE and SBI were very effective against the aeolian vibration. Combining vibration damper with damping cable will increase the damping ratio but it may be unnecessary considering the extra effort. Bus bar connector type or primary structure have no effect on the vertical load. The bending moment at the post insulator with double sided bus bar connector is significantly higher than at the post insulator with single sided bus bar connector. No reliable conclusions about bus bar connector type effect can be done, but the roller bearing type or central bearing type connector may reduce the bending moment. The RHS steel frame as primary structure may increase the bending moment peak values since it is the least rigid primary structure type and it may start to vibrate as a response to the awakening force of the vibrating bus bar.

Elevers läs- och skrivförmåga över tid : en longitudinell kohortstudie av läsförståelse och stavning i årskurs 1-6 i en finlandssvensk skola

Reports have shown that a growing number of students are leaving school without adequate reading and writing skills. At the same time, finnish children have improved in reading lit-eracy over the past decade. The school´s primary mission is to support student´s reading and writing development and follow it over time. Not only individual students´development has to be followd over time, as seen in this study, to be able to plan interventions. The purpose of this licentiate thesis is to study how the results in grades 1–6 exhibit in reading compre-hension and spelling over time in a school for the Swedish-speaking minority in Finland. Even gender differences in reading comprehension and spelling are being examined, as well as students with low performance. The data collection has been done during a period of twelwe years, 1997–2009, where data from practically every two years has been used for this study. Results are reported for the years 1997, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007 and 2009. The measuring instruments are standardized and normative tests in reading comprehension and spelling. The same instruments were used all of the years. The number of students was 1 037 and when possible, students partici-pated more than once. There was a minimal loss of data. The groups of students mostly came from urban districts, and a smaller number came from rural districts. Students with special needs were included in the group, but none of the students in special units participat-ed. The results show that the skills in reading comprehension and spelling haven´t changed appreciably over time. The trend shows slightly positive or unchanged direction except in spelling in grade 1 and reading comprehension in grade 5 where the trend is slightly nega-tive. The most obvious change can be noticed over time in reading comprehension in grade 2, where performance has improved significantly. Significant differences between boys´and girls´performances occur some years and in favor of the girls, but more often in spelling than in reading comprehension. In grade 4, there are no differences in results between boys and girls in any year, neither in reading comprehension nor in spelling, nor in grade 2 in reading comprehension. When the results shows gender differences, there are always differ-ences in both reading comprehension and spelling. Poor performances are also analyzed over time. Isolated reading comprehension difficulties were common for those who was performing poorly. In grade 2, as the only grade, most common was a double deficit in both reading comprehension and spelling, and in grade 4, most students who performed poorly had isolated difficulties in spelling. The amount of poor results varies over time, and no particular trend can be discerned. In grade 2, however, the poor results decreased over time, especially for the boys. Even in reading comprehension for grade 6 the amount of poor results, especially for the boys (10th percentile), has decreased over time, at least in the later years, while the poor results in-creased in spelling generally. In grade 4 the amount of poor results in spelling (10th perc.) seems to be reduced for the girls.

Reference values for lung function tests: I. Static volumes

Static lung volume (LV) measurements have a number of clinical and research applications; however, no previous studies have provided reference values for such tests using a healthy sample of the adult Brazilian population. With this as our main purpose, we prospectively evaluated 100 non-smoking subjects (50 males and 50 females), 20 to 80 years old, randomly selected from more than 8,000 individuals. Gender-specific linear prediction equations were developed by multiple regression analysis with total lung capacity (TLC), functional residual capacity (FRC), residual volume (RV), RV/TLC ratio and inspiratory capacity (IC) as dependent variables, and with age, height, weight, lean body mass and indexes of physical fitness as independent ones. Simpler demographic and anthropometric variables were as useful as more complex measurements in predicting LV values, independent of gender and age (R2 values ranging from 0.49 to 0.78, P<0.001). Interestingly, prediction equations from North American and European studies overestimated the LV at low volumes and underestimated them at high volumes (P<0.05). Our results, therefore, provide a more appropriate frame of reference to evaluate the normalcy of static lung volume values in Brazilian males and females aged 20 to 80 years.

Reference values for lung function tests: II. Maximal respiratory pressures and voluntary ventilation

The strength of the respiratory muscles can be evaluated from static measurements (maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressures, MIP and MEP) or inferred from dynamic maneuvers (maximal voluntary ventilation, MVV). Although these data could be suitable for a number of clinical and research applications, no previous studies have provided reference values for such tests using a healthy, randomly selected sample of the adult Brazilian population. With this main purpose, we prospectively evaluated 100 non-smoking subjects (50 males and 50 females), 20 to 80 years old, selected from more than 8,000 individuals. Gender-specific linear prediction equations for MIP, MEP and MVV were developed by multiple regression analysis: age and, secondarily, anthropometric measurements explained up to 56% of the variability of the dependent variables. The most cited previous studies using either Caucasian or non-Caucasian samples systematically underestimated the observed values of MIP (P<0.05). Interestingly, the self-reported level of regular physical activity and maximum aerobic power correlates strongly with both respiratory and peripheral muscular strength (knee extensor peak torque) (P<0.01). Our results, therefore, provide a new frame of reference to evaluate the normalcy of some useful indexes of respiratory muscle strength in Brazilian males and females aged 20 to 80.

Reference values for lung function tests: III. Carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (transfer factor)

Carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (DLCO) or transfer factor (TLCO) is a particularly useful test of the appropriateness of gas exchange across the lung alveolocapillary membrane. With the purpose of establishing predictive equations for DLCO using a non-smoking sample of the adult Brazilian population, we prospectively evaluated 100 subjects (50 males and 50 females aged 20 to 80 years), randomly selected from more than 8,000 individuals. Gender-specific linear prediction equations were developed by multiple regression analysis with single breath (SB) absolute and volume-corrected (VA) DLCO values as dependent variables. In the prediction equations, age (years) and height (cm) had opposite effects on DLCOSB (ml min-1 mmHg-1), independent of gender (-0.13 (age) + 0.32 (height) - 13.07 in males and -0.075 (age) + 0.18 (height) + 0.20 in females). On the other hand, height had a positive effect on DLCOSB but a negative one on DLCOSB/VA (P<0.01). We found that the predictive values from the most cited studies using predominantly Caucasian samples were significantly different from the actually measured values (P<0.05). Furthermore, oxygen uptake at maximal exercise (VO2max) correlated highly to DLCOSB (R = 0.71, P<0.001); this variable, however, did not maintain an independent role to explain the VO2max variability in the multiple regression analysis (P>0.05). Our results therefore provide an original frame of reference for either DLCOSB or DLCOSB/VA in Brazilian males and females aged 20 to 80 years, obtained from the standardized single-breath technique.

Identification of anaerobic threshold using heart rate response during dynamic exercise

The objective of the present study was to characterize the heart rate (HR) patterns of healthy males using the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model over a power range assumed to correspond to the anaerobic threshold (AT) during discontinuous dynamic exercise tests (DDET). Nine young (22.3 ± 1.57 years) and 9 middle-aged (MA) volunteers (43.2 ± 3.53 years) performed three DDET on a cycle ergometer. Protocol I: DDET in steps with progressive power increases of 10 W; protocol II: DDET using the same power values as protocol 1, but applied randomly; protocol III: continuous dynamic exercise protocol with ventilatory and metabolic measurements (10 W/min ramp power), for the measurement of ventilatory AT. HR was recorded and stored beat-to-beat during DDET, and analyzed using the ARIMA (protocols I and II). The DDET experiments showed that the median physical exercise workloads at which AT occurred were similar for protocols I and II, i.e., AT occurred between 75 W (116 bpm) and 85 W (116 bpm) for the young group and between 60 W (96 bpm) and 75 W (107 bpm) for group MA in protocols I and II, respectively; in two MA volunteers the ventilatory AT occurred at 90 W (108 bpm) and 95 W (111 bpm). This corresponded to the same power values of the positive trend in HR responses. The change in HR response using ARIMA models at submaximal dynamic exercise powers proved to be a promising approach for detecting AT in normal volunteers.

The inactivation of the basolateral nucleus of the rat amygdala has an anxiolytic effect in the elevated T-maze and light/dark transition tests

Pharmacological evidence indicates that the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) is involved in the mediation of inhibitory avoidance but not of escape behavior in the elevated T-maze test. These defensive responses have been associated with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder, respectively. In the present study, we determined whether the BLA plays a differential role in the control of inhibitory avoidance and escape responses in the elevated T-maze. Male Wistar rats (250-280 g, N = 9-10 in each treatment group) were pre-exposed to one of the open arms of the maze for 30 min and 24 h later tested in the model after inactivation of the BLA by a local injection of the GABA A receptor agonist muscimol (8 nmol in 0.2 µL). It has been shown that a prior forced exposure to one of the open arms of the maze, by shortening latencies to withdrawal from the open arm during the test, improves the escape task as a behavioral index of panic. The effects of muscimol in the elevated T-maze were compared to those caused by this GABA agonist in the avoidance reaction generated in the light/dark transition test. This defensive behavior has also been associated with GAD. In the elevated T-maze, intra-BLA injection of muscimol impaired inhibitory avoidance (control: 187.70 ± 14.90 s, muscimol: 37.10 ± 2.63 s), indicating an anxiolytic effect, without interfering with escape performance. The drug also showed an anxiolytic effect in the light/dark transition test as indicated by the increase in the time spent in the lighted compartment (control: 23.50 ± 2.45 s, muscimol: 47.30 ± 4.48 s). The present findings point to involvement of the BLA in the modulation of defensive responses that have been associated with GAD.

Westerners in search of the legendary potion : ayahuasca travel in the borderland between tourism and pilgrimage

The thesis examines the phenomenon most commonly known as “ayahuasca tourism” – i.e. the practice of westerners traveling to South America and partaking in ceremonies in which a powerful entheogenic brew, ayahuasca, is consumed. While this popular phenomenon has been steadily increasing during the last decades, it has, however, been insufficiently studied by scholars. An important question which has not been properly addressed in earlier studies is how ayahuasca tourism relates to the wider occurrence of travel and how it should be perceived with reference to the theoretical frameworks on the subject of travel. Drawing on theories regarding pilgrimage and tourism, the main purpose of this thesis is to examine the relationship between ayahuasca tourism and the broader spectrum of travel. In particular, the study tests the designations “pilgrimage”, “religious tourism” and “spiritual tourism” with reference to ayahuasca tourism. Utilizing earlier literature as well as ayahuasca tourists‟ reports obtained from an Internet forum as a basis for analysis, I search for a suitable terminology to be used for the phenomenon. The study lays special emphasis on the protagonists‟ motivations, experiences and outcomes in order to take note of various aspects of the wide-ranging occurrence of ayahuasca tourism. Key findings indicate that ayahuasca tourism is best understood as a combination of pilgrimage and tourism. On the basis of the analysis I argue that ayahuasca tourism should be labeled as “pilgrimage” and/or “spiritual tourism”, and the tourists respectively as “pilgrims” and/or “spiritual tourists”. The category of “religious tourism/tourist”, on the other hand, turns out to be an inappropriate designation when describing the phenomenon. In general, through my study I show that the results are consistent with the present trend in the study of travel to perceive pilgrimage and tourism as theoretically similar phenomena. The study of ayahuasca tourism serves thus as living proof of contemporary travel, in which the categories of pilgrimage and tourism are often indistinguishable. I suggest that ayahuasca tourism is by no means exceptional on this point, but can rather be used as an illustration of modern travel forms on a general level. Thus, the present study does not only add to the research of ayahuasca tourism, but also provides additional insights into the study of travel.