What if there was a stronger pharmaceutical price competition in Spain? When regulation has a similar effect to collusion

This paper examines statins competition in the Spanish pharmaceutical market, where prices are highly regulated, and simulates a situation in which there is unrestricted price competition. A nested logit demand model is estimated with a panel of monthly data for pharmaceuticals prescribed from 1997 to 2005. The simulation indicates that the regulation of prices is similar in its effects to cooperation among producers, since the regulated prices are close to those that would be observed in a scenario of perfect collusion. Freedom to set prices and a regulatory framework with appropriate incentives would result in a general reduction in prices and may make the current veiled competition in the form of discounts to pharmacists become more visible. The decrease in prices would be partially offset by an increase in consumption but the net effect would be an overall decrease in expenditure. The counterfactual set-up would also lead to important changes in the market shares of both manufacturers and active ingredients, and a reversal of generic drugs. Therefore, pro-competitive regulation would be welfare-enhancing but would imply winners and losers.

Generic drugs in Spain: price competition vs. moral hazard

This paper examines competition between generic and brand-name drugs in the regulated Spanish pharmaceutical market. A nested logit demand model is specified for the three most consumed therapeutic subgroups in Spain: statins (anticholesterol), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (antidepressants) and proton pump inhibitors (antiulcers). The model is estimated with instrumental variables from a panel of monthly prescription data from 1999 to 2005. The dataset distinguishes between three different levels of patients’ copayments within the prescriptions and the results show that the greater the level of insurance that the patient has (and therefore the lower the patient’s copayment), the lower the proportion of generic prescriptions made by physicians. It seems that the low level of copayment has delayed the penetration of generics into the Spanish market. Additionally, the estimation of the demand model suggests that the substitution rules and promotional efforts associated with the reference pricing system have increased generic market share, and that being among the first generic entrants has an additional positive effect.

Cellular pathology of hilar neurons in Ammon's horn sclerosis.

In addition to functionally affected neuronal signaling pathways, altered axonal, dendritic, and synaptic morphology may contribute to hippocampal hyperexcitability in chronic mesial temporal lobe epilepsies (MTLE). The sclerotic hippocampus in Ammon's horn sclerosis (AHS)-associated MTLE, which shows segmental neuronal cell loss, axonal reorganization, and astrogliosis, would appear particularly susceptible to such changes. To characterize the cellular hippocampal pathology in MTLE, we have analyzed hilar neurons in surgical hippocampus specimens from patients with MTLE. Anatomically well-preserved hippocampal specimens from patients with AHS (n = 44) and from patients with focal temporal lesions (non-AHS; n = 20) were studied using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CFLSM) and electron microscopy (EM). Hippocampal samples from three tumor patients without chronic epilepsies and autopsy samples were used as controls. Using intracellular Lucifer Yellow injection and CFLSM, spiny pyramidal, multipolar, and mossy cells as well as non-spiny multipolar neurons have been identified as major hilar cell types in controls and lesion-associated MTLE specimens. In contrast, none of the hilar neurons from AHS specimens displayed a morphology reminiscent of mossy cells. In AHS, a major portion of the pyramidal and multipolar neurons showed extensive dendritic ramification and periodic nodular swellings of dendritic shafts. EM analysis confirmed the altered cellular morphology, with an accumulation of cytoskeletal filaments and increased numbers of mitochondria as the most prominent findings. To characterize cytoskeletal alterations in hilar neurons further, immunohistochemical reactions for neurofilament proteins (NFP), microtubule-associated proteins, and tau were performed. This analysis specifically identified large and atypical hilar neurons with an accumulation of low weight NFP. Our data demonstrate striking structural alterations in hilar neurons of patients with AHS compared with controls and non-sclerotic MTLE specimens. Such changes may develop during cellular reorganization in the epileptogenic hippocampus and are likely to contribute to the pathogenesis or maintenance of temporal lobe epilepsy.

Age effects, unobserved characteristics and hedonic price indexes: The Spanish car market in the 1990's

This paper computes and compares alternative quality-adjusted price indexes for new cars in Spain in the period 1990-2000. The proposed hedonic approach simultaneously controls for time-invariant unobserved product effects and time-variant unobserved quality changes, that are assumed to be captured by model age effects. The results show that the non-adjusted price index largely overstates the increase in the cost of living induced by changes in car prices and that previous evidence for this market have not measured the real extent of that bias, probably due to the omission of controls for unobservables. It is also shown that omitting age effects can also lead to misleading conclusions. The estimated price indexes give also some insights on what could have been the determinants of price evolution in the Spanish car market. JEL classi…fication numbers: C43, E31, L11, L13, Keywords: Hedonic price indexes, Spanish car market, car prices, CPI, Cost of living

Factors determining the spontaneous activation of splenic dendritic cells in culture.

Dendritic cells (DCs) serve as a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems. The activation state of DCs is crucial in this role. However, when DCs are isolated from lymphoid tissues, purified and placed in culture they undergo 'spontaneous' activation. The basis of this was explored, using up-regulation of DC surface MHC II, CD40, CD80 and CD86 as indicators of DC activation. No evidence was found for DC damage during isolation or for microbial products causing the activation. The culture activation of spleen DCs differed from that of Langerhans cells when released from E-cadherin-mediated adhesions, since E-cadherin was not detected and activation still occurred with β-catenin null DCs. Much of the activation could be attributed to DC-DC interactions. Although increases in surface MHC II levels occurred under all culture conditions tested, the increase in expression of CD40, CD80 and CD86 was much less under culture conditions where such interactions were minimised. DC-to-DC contact under the artificial conditions of high DC concentration in culture induced the production of soluble factors and these, in turn, induced the up-regulation of co-stimulatory molecules on the DC surface.

R&D cooperation between Spanish firms and scientific partners: what is the role of tertiary education?

This paper explores the factors that determine firm’s R&D cooperation with different partners, paying special attention on the role of tertiary education (degree and PhDs level) in facilitating the connection between the firms and the to scientific bodies (technology centres, public research centres and universities). Here, we attempt to answer two questions. First, are innovative firms that carry out internal and external R&D activities more likely to cooperate on R&D projects with other partners? Second, do Spanish innovative firms with a high participation of researchers with degrees or PhDs tend to cooperate more with scientific partners? To answer both questions we apply a three-dimensional approach on a firm level Panel Data with a sample of 4.998 manufacturing and services Spanish firms. First, we run a complementary test between external R&D acquisition and skilled research workers and find that firms which carry out external R&D activities obtain a greater return on R&D cooperation when they have skilled workers in R&D, especially in high-tech manufactures and KIS services. Second, we carry out a 2-step tobit model to estimate, in the first stage, the determinants that explain whether Spanish innovative firms cooperate or not; and in the second stage the factors that affect the choice of partners. And third, we apply an ordered probit model to test the marginal effects of explanatory variables on the different partners. Here we contrast some of the most interesting empirical hypotheses of previous studies, and which emphasize the role of employees with degrees and PhDs in facilitating cooperative R&D between firms and scientific partners.

Macroeconomics of extensive margins: a simple model

How do monopolistically competitive industries react to shocks in the context of a New Keynesian macro model? I bridge macroeconomics and trade theory by considering market dynamics. I use an analytically tractable closed-economy model with endogenous entry of firms and show the implications of markets structure for the transmission of real shocks on aggregate variables and welfare. Shock sources become crucial for the results: traditional productivity shocks cause an extensive effect on production; shocks on innovation cause an intensive impact. More patient populations bring the economy to a richer market, although it cushions the extensive effect after an innovation shock.

Survey of canine heartworm in the city of Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil

Six hundred and eleven random-source dogs (338 male, 273 female) one year of age or older, from six sections of the city of Recife, Pernambuco, were examined antemortem for circulating microfilariae Dirofilaria immitis and Dipetalonema reconditum adult heartworm (D. immitis) antigen, and examined postmortem for adult heartworms. The prevalence of heartworm infection was 2.3% (14/611), as determined by necropsy for adult worms, and 1% (6/611) had circulating microfilariae of D. immitis; thus, 57.1% of the heartworm-infected dogs had occult infections. The results of serological testing indicated that 1.3% (8/611) of the dogs were positive for adult heartworm antigen. A total of 42 (6.9%) of the dogs had microfilariae of D. reconditum; 40 of these had only D. reconditum and two additional dogs had microfilariae of both species, D. immitis and D. reconditum.

Ethical Blindness

Many models of (un)ethical decision making assume that people decide rationally and are in principle able to evaluate their decisions from a moral point of view. However, people might behave unethically without being aware of it. They are ethically blind. Adopting a sensemaking approach, we argue that ethical blindness results from a complex interplay between individual sensemaking activities and context factors.

The Innovation and Imitation Dichotomy in Spanish firms: do absorptive capacity and the technological frontier matter?

This paper analyses whether a firm’s absorptive capacity and its distance from the technological frontier affect the choice between innovation and imitation in innovative Spanish firms. From an extensive survey of 5,575 firms during the 2004-2009 period, we found two significant results. With regard to the role of absorptive capacity, the empirical evidence shows that when innovative firms have difficulties in accessing external information and hire skilled workers, their innovative capacity is reduced. Meanwhile, with regard to distance from the technological frontier, the firms that reduce this gap manage to increase their innovative capacity at the expense of imitation. To summarise, when we studied firms’ absorptive capacity and their relative position to the technological frontier in tandem, we found that the two factors directly affected firms' ability to innovate or imitate.

Evaluating antitrust leniency programs

This paper identifies and then quantifies econometrically the impact of leniency programs on the perception of the effectiveness of antitrust policies using country level panel data for a 10-year span. Leniency programs have been introduced gradually in antitrust legislation across the globe to fight more effectively against cartels. We use the dynamics of the diffusion of such policy innovation across countries and over time to evaluate the impact of the program. We find that leniency programs have had a significant impact on the perception among the business community of the effectiveness of each country‟s antitrust policy. Leniency programs have become weapons of mass dissuasion in the hands of antitrust enforcers against the more damaging forms of explicit collusion among rival firms in the market place.

Higher memory responses in HIV-infected and kidney transplanted patients than in healthy subjects following priming with the pandemic vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Memory responses require immune competence. We assessed the influence of priming with AS03-adjuvanted pandemic vaccine (Pandemrix®) on memory responses of HIV patients, kidney recipients (SOT) and healthy controls (HC). METHOD: Participants (HIV: 197, SOT: 53; HC: 156) were enrolled in a prospective study and 390/406 (96%) completed it. All had been primed in 2009/2010 with 1 (HC) or 2 (patients) doses of Pandemrix®, and were boosted with the 2010/2011 seasonal influenza vaccine. Geometric mean titres and seroprotection rates were measured 12 months after priming and 4 weeks after boosting. Primary and memory responses were directly compared in 191 participants (HCW: 69, HIV: 71, SOT: 51) followed during 2 consecutive seasons. RESULTS: Most participants (HC: 77.8%, HIV: 77.6%, SOT: 66%) remained seroprotected at 12 months post-priming. Persisting A/09/H1N1 titers were high in HIV (100.2) and HC (120.1), but lower in SOT (61.4) patients. Memory responses reached higher titers in HIV (507.8) than in HC (253.5) and SOT (136.9) patients. Increasing age and lack of HAART reduced persisting and memory responses, mainly influenced by residual antibody titers. Comparing 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 titers in 191 participants followed for 2 seasons indicated lower post-2010/2011 titers in HC (240.2 vs 313.9), but higher titers in HIV (435.7 vs 338.0) and SOT (136 vs 90.3) patients. CONCLUSIONS: Priming with 2 doses of Pandemrix® elicited persistent antibody responses and even stronger memory responses to non-adjuvanted seasonal vaccine in HIV patients than 1 dose in healthy subjects. Adjuvanted influenza vaccines may improve memory responses of immunocompromised patients. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01022905.

Pork Value Chains: A Comparison of Catalonia, Spain and Manitoba, Canada

The purpose of this paper is to provide a comparative analysis of pork value chains in Catalonia, Spain and Manitoba, Canada. Intensive hog production models were implemented in Catalonia in the 1960s as a result of agriculture crises and fostered by feedstuffs factories. The expansion of the hog sector in Manitoba is more recent (in the 1990s) and brought about in large part by the opening of the Maple Leaf Meats processing plant in Brandon, Manitoba. This plant is capable of processing 90,000 hogs per week. Both hog production models ‐ the ‘older’ one in Catalonia (Spain) and the ‘newer’ in Manitoba‐ have been, until recently, examples of success. Inventories and production have been increasing substantially and both regions have proven to have great export potential. Recently, however, tensions have been developing with the hog production models of both regions, particularly as they relate to environmental concerns. The purpose of the paper is to compare the value chains with respect to their origins (e.g. supply a growing demand for pork, ensure farm profitability) and present states (e.g. environmental concerns, profitability). Keywords: pork value chain, hog farms, agri‐food studies. JEL: Q10, Q13, O57

Environmental Regulations in the Hog Farming Sector: A Comparison of Catalonia, Spain and Manitoba, Canada

This article examines the governance structures for managing the location and operation of Intensive Livestock Farming Operations (ILFOs). The article focuses on the hog sector and compares two very different jurisdictions: the Province of Manitoba, Canada and the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, Spain. Both are regions that have witnessed recent increases in hog production, including increasing spatial concentration of ILFOs and increasing size of those ILFOs. Policy has both fostered and sought to manage the increased production. Following a brief background description of restructuring, the changing legislative framework for Manitoba and Catalonia are described. Keywords: environmental regulations, hog farms, manure management, animal feeding operations. JEL: Q15, Q58, R52, O57