Land, Power and Technology : Essays on Political Economy and Historical Development

Land Ownership and Development: Evidence from Postwar Japan This paper analyzes the effect of land ownership on technology adoption and structural transformation. A large-scale land reform in postwar Japan enforced a large number of tenant farmers who were cultivating land to become owners of this land. I find that the municipalities which had many owner farmers after the land reform tended to experience a quick entry of new agricultural machines which became available after the reform. The adoption of the machines reduced the dependence on family labor, and led to a reallocation of labor from agriculture to industries and service sectors in urban centers when these sectors were growing. I also analyze the aggregate impact of labor reallocation on economic growth by using a simple growth model and micro data. I find that it increased GDP by about 12 percent of the GDP in 1974 during 1955-74. I also find a large and positive effect on agricultural productivity. Loyalty and Treason: Theory and Evidence from Japan's Land Reform A historically large-scale land reform in Japan after World War II enforced by the occupation forces redistributed a large area of farmlands to tenant farmers. The reform demolished hierarchical structures by weakening landlords' power in villages and towns. This paper investigates how the change in the social and economic structure of small communities affects electoral outcomes in the presence of clientelism. I find that there was a considerable decrease in the vote share of conservative parties in highly affected areas after the reform. I find the supporting evidence that the effect was driven by the fact that the tenant farmers who had obtained land exited from the long-term tenancy contract and became independent landowners. The effect was relatively persistent. Finally, I also find the surprising result that there was a decrease, rather than an increase, in turnout in these areas after the reform.  Geography and State Fragmentation We examine how geography affects the location of borders between sovereign states in Europe and surrounding areas from 1500 until today at the grid-cell level. This is motivated by an observation that the richest places in this region also have the highest historical border presence, suggesting a hitherto unexplored link between geography and modern development, working through state fragmentation. The raw correlations show that borders tend to be located on mountains, by rivers, closer to coasts, and in areas suitable for rainfed, but not irrigated, agriculture. Many of these patterns also hold with rigorous spatial controls. For example, cells with more rivers and more rugged terrain than their neighboring cells have higher border densities. However, the fragmenting effects of suitability for rainfed agriculture are reversed with such neighbor controls. Moreover, we find that borders are less likely to survive over time when they separate large states from small, but this size-difference effect is mitigated by, e.g., rugged terrain.

Development of Imaging Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Lipids in Biological and Clinically Relevant Applications

La spectrométrie de masse mesure la masse des ions selon leur rapport masse sur charge. Cette technique est employée dans plusieurs domaines et peut analyser des mélanges complexes. L’imagerie par spectrométrie de masse (Imaging Mass Spectrometry en anglais, IMS), une branche de la spectrométrie de masse, permet l’analyse des ions sur une surface, tout en conservant l’organisation spatiale des ions détectés. Jusqu’à présent, les échantillons les plus étudiés en IMS sont des sections tissulaires végétales ou animales. Parmi les molécules couramment analysées par l’IMS, les lipides ont suscité beaucoup d'intérêt. Les lipides sont impliqués dans les maladies et le fonctionnement normal des cellules; ils forment la membrane cellulaire et ont plusieurs rôles, comme celui de réguler des événements cellulaires. Considérant l’implication des lipides dans la biologie et la capacité du MALDI IMS à les analyser, nous avons développé des stratégies analytiques pour la manipulation des échantillons et l’analyse de larges ensembles de données lipidiques. La dégradation des lipides est très importante dans l’industrie alimentaire. De la même façon, les lipides des sections tissulaires risquent de se dégrader. Leurs produits de dégradation peuvent donc introduire des artefacts dans l’analyse IMS ainsi que la perte d’espèces lipidiques pouvant nuire à la précision des mesures d’abondance. Puisque les lipides oxydés sont aussi des médiateurs importants dans le développement de plusieurs maladies, leur réelle préservation devient donc critique. Dans les études multi-institutionnelles où les échantillons sont souvent transportés d’un emplacement à l’autre, des protocoles adaptés et validés, et des mesures de dégradation sont nécessaires. Nos principaux résultats sont les suivants : un accroissement en fonction du temps des phospholipides oxydés et des lysophospholipides dans des conditions ambiantes, une diminution de la présence des lipides ayant des acides gras insaturés et un effet inhibitoire sur ses phénomènes de la conservation des sections au froid sous N2. A température et atmosphère ambiantes, les phospholipides sont oxydés sur une échelle de temps typique d’une préparation IMS normale (~30 minutes). Les phospholipides sont aussi décomposés en lysophospholipides sur une échelle de temps de plusieurs jours. La validation d’une méthode de manipulation d’échantillon est d’autant plus importante lorsqu’il s’agit d’analyser un plus grand nombre d’échantillons. L’athérosclérose est une maladie cardiovasculaire induite par l’accumulation de matériel cellulaire sur la paroi artérielle. Puisque l’athérosclérose est un phénomène en trois dimension (3D), l'IMS 3D en série devient donc utile, d'une part, car elle a la capacité à localiser les molécules sur la longueur totale d’une plaque athéromateuse et, d'autre part, car elle peut identifier des mécanismes moléculaires du développement ou de la rupture des plaques. l'IMS 3D en série fait face à certains défis spécifiques, dont beaucoup se rapportent simplement à la reconstruction en 3D et à l’interprétation de la reconstruction moléculaire en temps réel. En tenant compte de ces objectifs et en utilisant l’IMS des lipides pour l’étude des plaques d’athérosclérose d’une carotide humaine et d’un modèle murin d’athérosclérose, nous avons élaboré des méthodes «open-source» pour la reconstruction des données de l’IMS en 3D. Notre méthodologie fournit un moyen d’obtenir des visualisations de haute qualité et démontre une stratégie pour l’interprétation rapide des données de l’IMS 3D par la segmentation multivariée. L’analyse d’aortes d’un modèle murin a été le point de départ pour le développement des méthodes car ce sont des échantillons mieux contrôlés. En corrélant les données acquises en mode d’ionisation positive et négative, l’IMS en 3D a permis de démontrer une accumulation des phospholipides dans les sinus aortiques. De plus, l’IMS par AgLDI a mis en évidence une localisation différentielle des acides gras libres, du cholestérol, des esters du cholestérol et des triglycérides. La segmentation multivariée des signaux lipidiques suite à l’analyse par IMS d’une carotide humaine démontre une histologie moléculaire corrélée avec le degré de sténose de l’artère. Ces recherches aident à mieux comprendre la complexité biologique de l’athérosclérose et peuvent possiblement prédire le développement de certains cas cliniques. La métastase au foie du cancer colorectal (Colorectal cancer liver metastasis en anglais, CRCLM) est la maladie métastatique du cancer colorectal primaire, un des cancers le plus fréquent au monde. L’évaluation et le pronostic des tumeurs CRCLM sont effectués avec l’histopathologie avec une marge d’erreur. Nous avons utilisé l’IMS des lipides pour identifier les compartiments histologiques du CRCLM et extraire leurs signatures lipidiques. En exploitant ces signatures moléculaires, nous avons pu déterminer un score histopathologique quantitatif et objectif et qui corrèle avec le pronostic. De plus, par la dissection des signatures lipidiques, nous avons identifié des espèces lipidiques individuelles qui sont discriminants des différentes histologies du CRCLM et qui peuvent potentiellement être utilisées comme des biomarqueurs pour la détermination de la réponse à la thérapie. Plus spécifiquement, nous avons trouvé une série de plasmalogènes et sphingolipides qui permettent de distinguer deux différents types de nécrose (infarct-like necrosis et usual necrosis en anglais, ILN et UN, respectivement). L’ILN est associé avec la réponse aux traitements chimiothérapiques, alors que l’UN est associé au fonctionnement normal de la tumeur.

Increased hippocampal excitability and impaired spatial memory function in mice lacking VGLUT2 selectively in neurons defined by tyrosine hydroxylase promoter activity

Three populations of neurons expressing the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (Vglut2) were recently described in the A10 area of the mouse midbrain, of which two populations were shown to express the gene encoding, the rate-limiting enzyme for catecholamine synthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH).One of these populations (‘‘TH– Vglut2 Class1’’) also expressed the dopamine transporter (DAT) gene while one did not ("TH–Vglut2 Class2"), and the remaining population did not express TH at all ("TH-Vglut2-only"). TH is known to be expressed by a promoter which shows two phases of activation, a transient one early during embryonal development, and a later one which gives rise to stable endogenous expression of the TH gene. The transient phase is, however, not specific to catecholaminergic neurons, a feature taken to advantage here as it enabled Vglut2 gene targeting within all three A10 populations expressing this gene, thus creating a new conditional knockout. These knockout mice showed impairment in spatial memory function. Electrophysiological analyses revealed a profound alteration of oscillatory activity in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. In addition to identifying a novel role for Vglut2 in hippocampus function, this study points to the need for improved genetic tools for targeting of the diversity of subpopulations of the A10 area

Design and modeling of optical fibers for spatial division multiplexing using the orbital angular momentum of light

Les besoins toujours croissants en terme de transfert de données numériques poussent au développement de nouvelles technologies pour accroître la capacité des réseaux, notamment en ce qui concerne les réseaux de fibre optique. Parmi ces nouvelles technologies, le multiplexage spatial permet de multiplier la capacité des liens optiques actuels. Nous nous intéressons particulièrement à une forme de multiplexage spatial utilisant le moment cinétique orbital de la lumière comme base orthogonale pour séparer un certain nombre de canaux. Nous présentons d’abord les notions d’électromagnétisme et de physique nécessaires à la compréhension des développements ultérieurs. Les équations de Maxwell sont dérivées afin d’expliquer les modes scalaires et vectoriels de la fibre optique. Nous présentons également d’autres propriétés modales, soit la coupure des modes, et les indices de groupe et de dispersion. La notion de moment cinétique orbital est ensuite introduite, avec plus particulièrement ses applications dans le domaine des télécommunications. Dans une seconde partie, nous proposons la carte modale comme un outil pour aider au design des fibres optiques à quelques modes. Nous développons la solution vectorielle des équations de coupure des modes pour les fibres en anneau, puis nous généralisons ces équations pour tous les profils de fibres à trois couches. Enfin, nous donnons quelques exemples d’application de la carte modale. Dans la troisième partie, nous présentons des designs de fibres pour la transmission des modes avec un moment cinétique orbital. Les outils développés dans la seconde partie sont utilisés pour effectuer ces designs. Un premier design de fibre, caractérisé par un centre creux, est étudié et démontré. Puis un second design, une famille de fibres avec un profil en anneau, est étudié. Des mesures d’indice effectif et d’indice de groupe sont effectuées sur ces fibres. Les outils et les fibres développés auront permis une meilleure compréhension de la transmission dans la fibre optique des modes ayant un moment cinétique orbital. Nous espérons que ces avancements aideront à développer prochainement des systèmes de communications performants utilisant le multiplexage spatial.

Cost-Efficient Spatial Placement of Water Retention Sites (WRS) to Reduce Sediment in Le Sueur River Watershed,MN

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-06

The Path between Pedagogy and Technology: Establishing a Theoretical Basis for the Development of Educational Game Environments

The power of computer game technology is currently being harnessed to produce “serious games”. These “games” are targeted at the education and training marketplace, and employ various key game-engine components such as the graphics and physics engines to produce realistic “digital-world” simulations of the real “physical world”. Many approaches are driven by the technology and often lack a consideration of a firm pedagogical underpinning. The authors believe that an analysis and deployment of both the technological and pedagogical dimensions should occur together, with the pedagogical dimension providing the lead. This chapter explores the relationship between these two dimensions, and explores how “pedagogy may inform the use of technology”, how various learning theories may be mapped onto the use of the affordances of computer game engines. Autonomous and collaborative learning approaches are discussed. The design of a serious game is broken down into spatial and temporal elements. The spatial dimension is related to the theories of knowledge structures, especially “concept maps”. The temporal dimension is related to “experiential learning”, especially the approach of Kolb. The multi-player aspect of serious games is related to theories of “collaborative learning” which is broken down into a discussion of “discourse” versus “dialogue”. Several general guiding principles are explored, such as the use of “metaphor” (including metaphors of space, embodiment, systems thinking, the internet and emergence). The topological design of a serious game is also highlighted. The discussion of pedagogy is related to various serious games we have recently produced and researched, and is presented in the hope of informing the “serious game community”.

Live−dead comparison of benthic foraminiferal faunas from the Rhône prodelta (Gulf of Lions, NW Mediterranean): Development of a proxy for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions

Dead benthic foraminiferal faunas (> 150 μm) from the Rhône prodelta (Gulf of Lions, NW Mediterranean) were analysed at 41 stations (15–100 m water depth) sampled in June 2005 and September 2006, and compared to the living faunas investigated during previous studies at the same stations. The comparison between dead and living assemblages enhances the understanding of taphonomic processes that may modify the composition of the dead faunas in this area. We observed a loss of individuals from living to dead assemblages of species characterised by a fairly fragile test and therefore more prone to fragmentation or dissolution (e.g., Bolivina alata, Quinqueloculina tenuicollis). Allochthonous dead and/or live specimens may be transported to some parts of the prodelta, particularly the shallowest sites where hydrodynamic processes (i.e., river flood, storm swells, longshore currents) are more intense. These specimens may originate from relict deltaic structures (e.g., Elphidium spp. from the lobe of Bras de Fer) or from surrounding areas (e.g., Ammonia beccarii forma beccarii from the river). Opportunistic species (e.g., Bulimina marginata, Cassidulina carinata) characterised by high reproductive rates have much higher relative abundances in the dead than in the living fauna. Cluster analyses based on dead foraminiferal assemblages divide our study area into four main thanatofacies directly related to distinct local environmental conditions prevailing in the prodelta. Close to the river mouth, Ammonia beccarii forma beccarii and Ammonia tepida are found in sediments subject to a high riverine influence (i.e., bottom currents, high organic and inorganic material input of continental origin). Elphidium species are abundant in the silty-sandy relict deltaic lobe west of the river mouth which is characterised by strong longshore currents that disturb the benthic environment. Nonion fabum, Rectuvigerina phlegeri and Valvulineria bradyana are found along the coast west of the Rhône River mouth, in the area defined as the “river plume” thanatofacies. In the more stable and deeper prodeltaic area, species known to feed on fresh phytodetritus (e.g., Bulimina aculeata/marginata, C. carinata, Hyalinea balthica) dominate the faunas. Since only minor variations in species relative abundances and spatial distributional patterns are observed between the living and the dead faunas, we consider that our thanatofacies have not been influenced by substantial transport of dead tests. This suggests that fossil benthic foraminifera can provide a reliable tool for investigating the development of the palaeo-Rhône prodelta

Considering climate change in the development of marine protected areas

Marine ecosystems are facing a diverse range of threats, including climate change, prompting international efforts to safeguard marine biodiversity through the use of spatial management measures. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been implemented as a conservation tool throughout the world, but their usefulness and effectiveness is strongly related to climate change. However, few MPA programmes have directly considered climate change in the design, management or monitoring of an MPA network. Under international obligations, EU, UK and national targets, Scotland has developed an MPA network that aims to protect marine biodiversity and contribute to the vision of a clean, healthy and productive marine environment. This is the first study to critically analyse the Scottish MPA process and highlight areas which may be improved upon in further iterations of the network in the context of climate change. Initially, a critical review of the Scottish MPA process considered how ecological principles for MPA network design were incorporated into the process, how stakeholder perceptions were considered and crucially what consideration was given to the influence of climate change on the eventual effectiveness of the network. The results indicated that to make a meaningful contribution to marine biodiversity protection for Europe the Scottish MPA network should: i) fully adopt best practice ecological principles ii) ensure effective protection and iii) explicitly consider climate change in the management, monitoring and future iterations of the network. However, this review also highlighted the difficulties of incorporating considerations of climate change into an already complex process. A series of international case studies from British Columbia, Canada; central California, USA; the Great Barrier Reef, Australia and the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand, were then conducted to investigate perceptions of how climate change has been considered in the design, implementation, management and monitoring of MPAs. The key lessons from this study included: i) strictly protected marine reserves are considered essential for climate change resilience and will be necessary as scientific reference sites to understand climate change effects ii) adaptive management of MPA networks is important but hard to implement iii) strictly protected reserves managed as ecosystems are the best option for an uncertain future. This work provides new insights into the policy and practical challenges MPA managers face under climate change scenarios. Based on the Scottish and international studies, the need to facilitate clear communication between academics, policy makers and stakeholders was recognised in order to progress MPA policy delivery and to ensure decisions were jointly formed and acceptable. A Delphi technique was used to develop a series of recommendations for considering climate change in Scotland’s MPA process. The Delphi participant panel was selected for their knowledge of the Scottish MPA process and included stakeholders, policy makers and academics with expertise in MPA research. The results from the first round of the Delphi technique suggested that differing views of success would likely influence opinions regarding required management of MPAs, and in turn, the data requirements to support management action decisions. The second round of the Delphi technique explored this further and indicated that there was a fundamental dichotomy in panellists’ views of a successful MPA network depending upon whether they believed the MPAs should be strictly protected or allow for sustainable use. A third, focus group round of the Delphi Technique developed a feature-based management scenario matrix to aid in deciding upon management actions in light of changes occurring in the MPA network. This thesis highlights that if the Scottish MPA network is to fulfil objectives of conservation and restoration, the implications of climate change for the design, management and monitoring of the network must be considered. In particular, there needs to be a greater focus on: i) incorporating ecological principles that directly address climate change ii) effective protection that builds resilience of the marine and linked social environment iii) developing a focused, strong and adaptable monitoring framework iv) ensuring mechanisms for adaptive management.

Supporting self-management: development and evaluation of a digital resource for adults with asthma

The problem: Around 300 million people worldwide have asthma and prevalence is increasing. Support for optimal self-management can be effective in improving a range of outcomes and is cost effective, but is underutilised as a treatment strategy. Supporting optimum self-management using digital technology shows promise, but how best to do this is not clear. Aim: The purpose of this project was to explore the potential role of a digital intervention in promoting optimum self-management in adults with asthma. Methods: Following the MRC Guidance on the Development and Evaluation of Complex Interventions which advocates using theory, evidence, user testing and appropriate modelling and piloting, this project had 3 phases. Phase 1: Examination of the literature to inform phases 2 and 3, using systematic review methods and focussed literature searching. Phase 2: Developing the Living Well with Asthma website. A prototype (paper-based) version of the website was developed iteratively with input from a multidisciplinary expert panel, empirical evidence from the literature (from phase 1), and potential end users via focus groups (adults with asthma and practice nurses). Implementation and behaviour change theories informed this process. The paper-based designs were converted to the website through an iterative user centred process (think aloud studies with adults with asthma). Participants considered contents, layout, and navigation. Development was agile using feedback from the think aloud sessions immediately to inform design and subsequent think aloud sessions. Phase 3: A pilot randomised controlled trial over 12 weeks to evaluate the feasibility of a Phase 3 trial of Living Well with Asthma to support self-management. Primary outcomes were 1) recruitment & retention; 2) website use; 3) Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ) score change from baseline; 4) Mini Asthma Quality of Life (AQLQ) score change from baseline. Secondary outcomes were patient activation, adherence, lung function, fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO), generic quality of life measure (EQ-5D), medication use, prescribing and health services contacts. Results: Phase1: Demonstrated that while digital interventions show promise, with some evidence of effectiveness in certain outcomes, participants were poorly characterised, telling us little about the reach of these interventions. The interventions themselves were poorly described making drawing definitive conclusions about what worked and what did not impossible. Phase 2: The literature indicated that important aspects to cover in any self-management intervention (digital or not) included: asthma action plans, regular health professional review, trigger avoidance, psychological functioning, self-monitoring, inhaler technique, and goal setting. The website asked users to aim to be symptom free. Key behaviours targeted to achieve this include: optimising medication use (including inhaler technique); attending primary care asthma reviews; using asthma action plans; increasing physical activity levels; and stopping smoking. The website had 11 sections, plus email reminders, which promoted these behaviours. Feedback during think aloud studies was mainly positive with most changes focussing on clarification of language, order of pages and usability issues mainly relating to navigation difficulties. Phase 3: To achieve our recruitment target 5383 potential participants were invited, leading to 51 participants randomised (25 to intervention group). Age range 16-78 years; 75% female; 28% from most deprived quintile. Nineteen (76%) of the intervention group used the website for an average of 23 minutes. Non-significant improvements in favour of the intervention group observed in the ACQ score (-0.36; 95% confidence interval: -0.96, 0.23; p=0.225), and mini-AQLQ scores (0.38; -0.13, 0.89; p=0.136). A significant improvement was observed in the activity limitation domain of the mini-AQLQ (0.60; 0.05 to 1.15; p = 0.034). Secondary outcomes showed increased patient activation and reduced reliance on reliever medication. There was no significant difference in the remaining secondary outcomes. There were no adverse events. Conclusion: Living Well with Asthma has been shown to be acceptable to potential end users, and has potential for effectiveness. This intervention merits further development, and subsequent evaluation in a Phase III full scale RCT.

Evaluating Invariances in Document Layout Functions

With the development of variable-data-driven digital presses - where each document printed is potentially unique - there is a need for pre-press optimization to identify material that is invariant from document to document. In this way rasterisation can be confined solely to those areas which change between successive documents thereby alleviating a potential performance bottleneck. Given a template document specified in terms of layout functions, where actual data is bound at the last possible moment before printing, we look at deriving and exploiting the invariant properties of layout functions from their formal specifications. We propose future work on generic extraction of invariance from such properties for certain classes of layout functions.

Spatial multicriteria decision analysis to potential beekeeping assessment. Case study: Montesinho Natural Park (Portugal)

The Multicriteria decision analysis is a tool to support decision-making in the identification of areas with the utmost beekeeping potential. This paper design a GIS multicriteria approach to assess the beekeeping potential. The development of a conceptual model structure requires the participation of stakeholders and experts in that process. The spatial Multicriteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) allowed defining the potential beekeeping map. The resulting maps can be used by the beekeepers associations to easily select the more suitable areas for the apiaries location or relocation and avoid prohibited areas by legal requirements.

Adaptability, Transformation and Complex Changes in Namibia and Tanzania: Resilience and Innovation System Development in Local Communities

This thesis is a research about the recent complex spatial changes in Namibia and Tanzania and local communities’ capacity to cope with, adapt to and transform the unpredictability engaged to these processes. I scrutinise the concept of resilience and its potential application to explaining the development of local communities in Southern Africa when facing various social, economic and environmental changes. My research is based on three distinct but overlapping research questions: what are the main spatial changes and their impact on the study areas in Namibia and Tanzania? What are the adaptation, transformation and resilience processes of the studied local communities in Namibia and Tanzania? How are innovation systems developed, and what is their impact on the resilience of the studied local communities in Namibia and Tanzania? I use four ethnographic case studies concerning environmental change, global tourism and innovation system development in Namibia and Tanzania, as well as mixed-methodological approaches, to study these issues. The results of my empirical investigation demonstrate that the spatial changes in the localities within Namibia and Tanzania are unique, loose assemblages, a result of the complex, multisided, relational and evolutional development of human and non-human elements that do not necessarily have linear causalities. Several changes co-exist and are interconnected though uncertain and unstructured and, together with the multiple stressors related to poverty, have made communities more vulnerable to different changes. The communities’ adaptation and transformation measures have been mostly reactive, based on contingency and post hoc learning. Despite various anticipation techniques, coping measures, adaptive learning and self-organisation processes occurring in the localities, the local communities are constrained by their uneven power relationships within the larger assemblages. Thus, communities’ own opportunities to increase their resilience are limited without changing the relations in these multiform entities. Therefore, larger cooperation models are needed, like an innovation system, based on the interactions of different actors to foster cooperation, which require collaboration among and input from a diverse set of stakeholders to combine different sources of knowledge, innovation and learning. Accordingly, both Namibia and Tanzania are developing an innovation system as their key policy to foster transformation towards knowledge-based societies. Finally, the development of an innovation system needs novel bottom-up approaches to increase the resilience of local communities and embed it into local communities. Therefore, innovation policies in Namibia have emphasised the role of indigenous knowledge, and Tanzania has established the Living Lab network.

Increased hippocampal excitability and impaired spatial memory function in mice lacking VGLUT2 selectively in neurons defined by tyrosine hydroxylase promoter activity

Three populations of neurons expressing the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (Vglut2) were recently described in the A10 area of the mouse midbrain, of which two populations were shown to express the gene encoding, the rate-limiting enzyme for catecholamine synthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH).One of these populations (‘‘TH– Vglut2 Class1’’) also expressed the dopamine transporter (DAT) gene while one did not ("TH–Vglut2 Class2"), and the remaining population did not express TH at all ("TH-Vglut2-only"). TH is known to be expressed by a promoter which shows two phases of activation, a transient one early during embryonal development, and a later one which gives rise to stable endogenous expression of the TH gene. The transient phase is, however, not specific to catecholaminergic neurons, a feature taken to advantage here as it enabled Vglut2 gene targeting within all three A10 populations expressing this gene, thus creating a new conditional knockout. These knockout mice showed impairment in spatial memory function. Electrophysiological analyses revealed a profound alteration of oscillatory activity in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. In addition to identifying a novel role for Vglut2 in hippocampus function, this study points to the need for improved genetic tools for targeting of the diversity of subpopulations of the A10 area