A police state? The Nyasaland emergency and colonial intelligence.

The Nyasaland Emergency in 1959 proved a decisive turning point in the history of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which from 1953 to 1963 brought together the territories of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) under a settler-dominated federal government. The British and Nyasaland governments defended the emergency by claiming to have gathered intelligence which showed that the Nyasaland African Congress was preparing a campaign of sabotage and murder. The Devlin Commission, appointed to investigate the emergency, dismissed the evidence of a ‘murder plot’, criticised the Nyasaland government's handling of the Emergency and, notoriously, described Nyasaland as a ‘police state’. This article has two principal aims. First, using the recently declassified papers of the Intelligence and Security Department (ISD) of the Colonial Office, it seeks to provide the first detailed account of what the British government knew of the intelligence relating to the ‘murder plot’ and how they assessed it, prior to the outbreak of the emergency. It demonstrates that officials in the ISD and members of the Security Service adopted a far more cautious attitude towards the intelligence than did Conservative ministers, and had greater qualms about allowing it into the public domain to justify government policy. Second, the article examines the implications of Devlin's use of the phrase ‘police state’ for Nyasaland and for the late colonial state in general. It contrasts Devlin's use of the term with that of security experts in the ISD, who routinely applied it to policing systems that diverged from their own preferred model. Hence, whereas Devlin compared policing in Nyasaland unfavourably with that in Southern Rhodesia, implying, ironically, that Nyasaland was ‘under-policed’ (because there were fewer police per head of population in Nyasaland than in Southern Rhodesia), the ISD regarded the intensive system of policing operated by the British South Africa Police in Southern Rhodesia as characteristic of a ‘police state’. The article suggests that the frequent use of the term ‘police state’ was indicative of broader anxieties about what Britain's legacy would be for the post-independence African state.

Are informed citizens more trusting? Transparency of performance data and trust towards a British police force

In Britain, substantial cuts in police budgets alongside controversial handling of incidents such as politically sensitive enquiries, public disorder and relations with the media have recently triggered much debate about public knowledge and trust in the police. To date, however, little academic research has investigated how knowledge of police performance impacts citizens’ trust. We address this long-standing lacuna by exploring citizens’ trust before and after exposure to real performance data in the context of a British police force. The results reveal that being informed of performance data affects citizens’ trust significantly. Furthermore, direction and degree of change in trust are related to variations across the different elements of the reported performance criteria. Interestingly, the volatility of citizens’ trust is related to initial performance perceptions (such that citizens with low initial perceptions of police performance react more significantly to evidence of both good and bad performance than citizens with high initial perceptions), and citizens’ intentions to support the police do not always correlate with their cognitive and affective trust towards the police. In discussing our findings, we explore the implications of how being transparent with performance data can both hinder and be helpful in developing citizens’ trust towards a public organisation such as the police. From our study, we pose a number of ethical challenges that practitioners face when deciding what data to highlight, to whom, and for what purpose.

Trust in the German police

The relative levels of trust in the police are explored, using data from the fifth round of the European Social Survey (ESS) which covered mainly 28 European countries. In this article, the position of Germany is examined within the international context. German trust in the police, for both German natives and ethnic minorities, for those 15 and over is high in comparison to other European countries. The article also tests if it is the fair treatment of citizens by the police, or the high value placed on rule adherence and conformity, that is driving the German citizen’s trust. It shows that the German police is trusted due to their perceived fairness, effectiveness and shared moral values, rather than on value placed on conformity to authority.

A systematic review of triage-related interventions to improve patient flow in emergency departments

Background Overcrowding in emergency departments is a worldwide problem. A systematic literature review was undertaken to scientifically explore which interventions improve patient flow in emergency departments. Methods A systematic literature search for flow processes in emergency departments was followed by assessment of relevance and methodological quality of each individual study fulfilling the inclusion criteria. Studies were excluded if they did not present data on waiting time, length of stay, patients leaving the emergency department without being seen or other flow parameters based on a nonselected material of patients. Only studies with a control group, either in a randomized controlled trial or in an observational study with historical controls, were included. For each intervention, the level of scientific evidence was rated according to the GRADE system, launched by a WHO-supported working group. Results The interventions were grouped into streaming, fast track, team triage, point-of-care testing (performing laboratory analysis in the emergency department), and nurse-requested x-ray. Thirty-three studies, including over 800,000 patients in total, were included. Scientific evidence on the effect of fast track on waiting time, length of stay, and left without being seen was moderately strong. The effect of team triage on left without being seen was relatively strong, but the evidence for all other interventions was limited or insufficient. Conclusions Introducing fast track for patients with less severe symptoms results in shorter waiting time, shorter length of stay, and fewer patients leaving without being seen. Team triage, with a physician in the team, will probably result in shorter waiting time and shorter length of stay and most likely in fewer patients leaving without being seen. There is only limited scientific evidence that streaming of patients into different tracks, performing laboratory analysis in the emergency department or having nurses to request certain x-rays results in shorter waiting time and length of stay.

Constructive alignment in Computer Engineering and Informatics departments at Dalarna University : An empirical investigation

Background: Constructive alignment (CA) is a pedagogical approach that emphasizes the alignment between the intended learning outcomes (ILOs), teaching and learning activities (TLAs) and assessment tasks (ATs) as well as creation of a teaching/learning environment where students will be able to actively create their knowledge. Objectives: This paper aims at investigating the extent of constructively-aligned courses in Computer Engineering and Informatics department at Dalarna University, Sweden. This study is based on empirical observations of teacher’s perceptions of implementation of CA in their courses. Methods: Ten teachers (5 from each department) were asked to fill a paper-based questionnaire, which included a number of questions related to issues of implementing CA in courses. Results: Responses to the items of the questionnaire were mixed. Teachers clearly state the ILOs in their courses and try to align the TLAs and ATs to the ILOs. Computer Engineering teachers do not explicitly communicate the ILOs to the students as compared to Informatics teachers. In addition, Computer Engineering teachers stated that their students are less active in learning activities as compared to Informatics teachers. When asked about their subjective ratings of teaching methods all teachers stated that their current teaching is teacher-centered but they try to shift the focus of activity from them to the students. Conclusions: From teachers’ perspectives, the courses are partially constructively-aligned. Their courses are “aligned”, i.e. ILOs, TLAs and ATs are aligned to each other but they are not “constructive” since, according to them, there was a low student engagement in learning activities, especially in Computer Engineering department.

Os corpos de bombeiros militares emancipados das polícias militares : prospecção e análise dos parâmetros norteadores do seu "desenho" organizacional

A partir da promulgação da Constituição Federal de 1988, iniciou-se no Brasil a emancipação dos corpos de bombeiros das polícias militares. Este estudo, tomando como referência o surgimento dessas "novas" organizações, procurou analisar o comportamento dos parâmetros norteadores do seu "desenho" organizacional e, ao mesmo tempo, despertar nos seus dirigentes o estudo do tema "mudança organizacional". Do total de dezenove corpos de bombeiros militares emancipados a pesquisa contemplou diretamente cinco deles para pôr em foco a questão central do estudo. Concomitantemente à abordagem da questão central, o estudo levantou dados de todas as corporações com a finalidade de retratá-las em aspectos mais gerais de sua organização. A investigação foi do tipo exploratória e explicativa, sendo realizada por meio de pesquisa de campo, bibliográfica e documental. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas realizadas com os oficiais superiores (coronéis, tenentes-coronéis e majores) das corporações, e mediante consulta a dispositivos legais. Os resultados obtidos revelaram, de uma maneira geraL que os parâmetros norteadores do "desenho" organizacional apresentam alguns problemas. As retlexões sobre os problemas levaram à conclusão de que eles podem ser ajustados mediante ações gerenciais e mudança da cultura organizacional.

Efeitos organizacionais da implantação de metas e remuneração variável por desempenho: o caso da segurança pública em Minas Gerais

Quais os efeitos práticos que a cobrança de metas provoca nas instituições e nos servidores públicos? E quando se vincula premiações financeiras a elas, qual o resultado? O Brasil vive uma onda recente de implantação de modelos de remuneração variável por desempenho no setor público. Minas Gerais universalizou o sistema em 2008, implantando o Acordo de Resultados e o Prêmio por Produtividade, já tendo gasto 1,3 bilhão de reais com o programa. Mas o otimismo dos gestores não encontra fundamento na teoria. A literatura mostra que sistemas de remuneração variável no setor público fracassam ou têm sucesso muito limitado (OCDE, 2005; Perry, Engbergs e Jun, 2009; Bowman, 2010; Weibel, Rost e Osterloh 2010). Conflitos, dificuldade de mensuração do desempenho, fraude e incapacidade de motivar servidores públicos têm direcionado experiências de incentivo ao fracasso. Alguns poucos estudos mostram que, sob certas condições, a remuneração variável por desempenho pode gerar resultados positivos (Marsden, 2010). Seria o sistema mineiro capaz de superar o pessimismo dos especialistas e alcançar resultados positivos? Quais mecanismos de fato operam quando se implementa metas e remuneração variável em instituições públicas? Este trabalho busca responder estas questões a partir do estudo de caso de três organizações da segurança pública em Minas Gerais: Polícia Militar, Polícia Civil e Corpo de Bombeiros Militar. Foram feitas 46 entrevistas com policiais, bombeiros e com a cúpula das instituições, analisados dados estatísticos – que avaliam a evolução do desempenho, observação participante e monitoramento da percepção da mídia sobre tais efeitos. O resultado mostra que metas e incentivos financeiros geraram profundas mudanças nas instituições pesquisadas. Na Polícia Civil houve crescimento da produtividade, aumento do controle e melhoria de processos internos. Entretanto, o foco na produção quantitativa de inquéritos gerou incentivos para a redução de sua qualidade. Na Polícia Militar observou-se impacto menor, uma vez que esta já havia auferido no passado recente ganhos que o uso de indicadores e metas poderia proporcionar. Ainda assim, observou-se aumento da cobrança interna de resultados. Esse fato foi um dos fatores que contribuiu para um efeito negativo importante: a reclassificação de crimes. Uma estrutura de incentivos e a ausência de obstáculos levaram alguns policiais a reclassificar crimes que tinham natureza próxima para melhorar as estatísticas de suas unidades. No Corpo de Bombeiros o impacto foi altamente positivo, levando a instituição a conceber novas estratégias, gerando ganhos importantes de produtividade e melhoria de resultados para o cidadão. O resultado mostra que metas e incentivos financeiros são muito poderosos e podem gerar resultados positivos ou negativos, dependendo da forma como são implementados. As evidências contradizem, em parte, o pessimismo dos acadêmicos e descortinam o funcionamento dos mecanismos que fazem metas e remuneração variável interferirem no resultado de organizações públicas.

Do police reduce crime? Estimates using the allocation of police forces after a terrorist attack

An important challenge in the crime literature is to isolate causal effects of police on crime. Following a terrorist attack on the main Jewish center in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, in July 1994, all Jewish institutions (including schools, synagogues, and clubs) were given 24-hour police protection. Thus, this hideous event induced a geographical allocation of police forces that can be presumed to be exogenous in a crime regression. Using data on the location of car thefts before and after the terrorist attack, we find a large deterrent effect of observable police presence on crime. The effect is local, with little or no appreciable impact outside the narrow area in which the police are deployed.

Geographical externalities and the Pacifying Police Units Program in Rio de Janeiro

The paper quantifies the effects on violence and police activity of the Pacifying Police Unit program (UPP) in Rio de Janeiro and the possible geographical spillovers caused by this policy. This program consists of taking selected shantytowns controlled by criminals organizations back to the State. The strategy of the policy is to dislodge the criminals and then settle a permanent community-oriented police station in the slum. The installation of police units in these slums can generate geographical spillover effects to other regions of the State of Rio de Janeiro. We use the interrupted time series approach proposed by Gonzalez-Navarro (2013) to address effects of a police when there is contagion of the control group and we find that criminal outcomes decrease in areas of UPP and in areas near treated regions. Furthermore, we build a model which allows to perform counterfactuals of this policy and to estimate causal effects in other areas of the State of Rio de Janeiro outside the city.

Acoustic and psychoacoustic analysis of the noise produced by the police force firearms

Police officers are exposed to impact noise coming from firearms, which may cause irreversible injuries to the hearing system.Aim: To evaluate the noise exposure in shooting stands during gunfire exercises, to analyze the acoustic impact of the noise produced by the firearms and to associate it with tonal audiometry results.Study design: Cross-sectional.Materials and methods: To measure noise intensity we used a digital sound level meter, and the acoustic analysis was carried out by means of the oscillations and cochlear response curves provided by the Praat software. 30 police officers were selected (27 males and 3 females).Results: The peak level measured was 113.1 dB(C) from a .40 pistol and 116.8 dB(C) for a .38 revolver. The values obtained for oscillation and Praat was 17.9 +/- 0.3 Barks, corresponding to the rate of 4,120 and 4,580 Hz. Audiometry indicated greater hearing loss at 4,000Hz in 86.7% of the cases.Conclusion: With the acoustic analysis it was possible to show cause and effect between the main areas of energy excitation of the cochlea (Praat cochlear response curve) and the frequencies of low hearing acuity.

A prelude of a 'little army'? São Paulo police force in the early years of the Republic (1890-1895)

This article analyzes the creation and development of the São Paulo police force during the early years of the republican regime. In a period of political change and turbulence, institutional upheaval (uprising of the Navy and federalist revolution), and social pressure, São Paulo's police force played an important role. As the state sought to organize the public sphere, the police force became a tool in the new government's hands. A more martial set of demands mobilized a large portion of the troops on behalf of the federal government against the Custodio de Mello uprising, and sought to defend São Paulo's borders. Despite official discourse that fomented a militarized response, São Paulo's police force found itself unable to dismiss old personnel and practices and dislodge entrenched interests.

Militarism, conflicts and indiscipline in police practices in the State of São Paulo during the First Brazilian Republic

This article examines the challenges involved in the process of police militarization and implementation of police discipline in the State of São Paulo during the First Brazilian Republic (1889 to 1930). The implementation of a militarized police model, initiated by the 1906 French Military Mission, was not fully able to deal with indiscipline issues among policemen. Beyond creating problems of its own, such as fostering a corporatist culture and strengthening rigid hierarchies, military discipline prevented police forces to address new issues that would affect its practices. Documents in the São Paulo State Public Archive provides a window to the daily violence, the personal compromises, the institutional conflicts and the political meddling that was part of police life in the State of São Paulo at the turn of the century.

Stylized facts of income distribution in five countries of Latin America and general guidelines for a redistributive police

Includes bibliography