NEW ROLE OF COOPERATIVES IN ETHIOPIA: THE CASE OF ETHIOPIAN COFFEE FARMERS COOPERATIVES

Since 1991, policies of economic liberalization in Ethiopia have been effective in releasing the economy from rigid state control. At the same time, they have also exposed Ethiopian people to domestic and international free market competition. In African countries, the retreat of governments from rural development due to economic liberalization policies has led to the re-evaluation of the role of cooperatives. Since 1999, in Ethiopia, several coffee farmers cooperative unions have been established to support peasants who are handicapped by their lack of negotiating power in the global economy. Coffee cooperatives have become market-oriented and are now relatively democratic compared to the former Marxist cooperatives of the previous regime. Thus far, these coffee cooperatives have provided higher profits to coffee farmers than have private traders. The actual volume of purchase, however, is limited　due to financial constraints. Because of this, the majority of cooperatives continues to rely on conventional marketing channels rather than on unions. Considering their weak financial condition, it is too early to judge the sustainability of the cooperatives because international prices have been high recently, and it is not yet clear how they would survive a downward international price trend.

Regional differences regarding land tenancy in rural Rwanda, with special reference to sharecropping in a coffee production area

This paper examines land tenancy systems and tenant contracts in Rwanda, with respect to socioeconomic contexts. Our research in southern and eastern Rwanda produced data suggesting that land borrowing with fixed rents has been generally practiced, and that rent levels have been low in comparison to expected revenues from field production. In the western areas of coffee production, however, the practice of sharecropping has recently appeared. This system is advantageous to landowners, as they are able to acquire half of the harvests; in addition, the fixed rent levels in this region are much higher than those of other regions. In the southern and eastern regions, because land borrowing with fixed rents has been the only tenancy pattern and rent levels have remained low, the economic situation should be interpreted in the context of a continuing traditional Rwandan land tenure system. In contrast, in the western coffee production area, the soaring of fixed rents and the emergence of sharecropping have been brought about by high pressures for land use, which were caused not only by a population increase but also by the development of cash crop production and the existence of a labor exchange system. The increase in rent levels has therefore been offset by a corresponding increase in agricultural productivity.

Primera noticia de la presencia de Opuntia robusta var. larreyi (Weber) en España

Recientemente han sido identificados en España, de forma provisional, ejemplares de la especie Opuntia robusta, variedad larreyi (Weber). Los ejemplares, ubicados en Madrid, están siendo estudiados por el Departamento de Producción Vegetal: Botánica y Protección Vegetal de la E.T.S.I. Agrónomos de Madrid con el objeto de evaluar su producción de biomasa.

Aplicación de los métodos de estimación robusta en el ajuste de observaciones para la detección de errores en una red básica topográfica situada en la ciudad de Valdeluz, Guadalajara.

El objetivo de este proyecto consiste en verificar si existen métodos de ajuste que nos permitan corregir observaciones que llevan introducidas un cierto error grosero. Este error puede ser cometido por el operador al realizar la toma de datos. Cuando se realiza el ajuste por el método clásico de una serie de observaciones que componen una red y éstas llevan incluidas un error grosero, el resultado del ajuste es totalmente inválido, ya que este método tiende a repartir los errores cometidos entre todas las observaciones dando como resultado residuos muy elevados. Normalmente, ante este tipo de casos, el usuario responde invalidando las observaciones con mayor residuo y procediendo a realizar el ajuste sin contar con las observaciones que se anularon. Para llevar a cabo este proceso, debe haber redundancia en la toma de datos, ya que si no se dispusiera de la misma, no podrían eliminarse observaciones. Nuestro objetivo real es llevar a cabo un estudio en el que demostrar que el método de ajuste por técnicas de estimación robusta tiene una capacidad infinitamente superior a los mínimos cuadrados en la detección de errores groseros en observaciones, permitiendo de esta forma al usuario corregir dicho error e incluir esa observación en el ajuste. Este método de ajuste (estimación robusta) comenzó a emplearse en el campo de la fotogrametría. Es por ello que nuestra investigación irá encaminada al empleo de los estimadores robustos en aplicaciones topográficas en las que todavía no han sido utilizados. Se decidió iniciar este estudio porque era un proyecto innovador que nunca había sido realizado y las conclusiones del mismo han sido muy favorables, como se puede comprobar más adelante.

Advanced characterization of a coffee fermenting tank by multi-distributed wireless sensors: spatial interpolation and phase diagrams.

In coffee processing the fermentation stage is considered one of the critical operations by its impact on the final quality of the product. However, the level of control of the fermentation process on each farm is often not adequate; the use of sensorics for controlling coffee fermentation is not common. The objective of this work is to characterize the fermentation temperature in a fermentation tank by applying spatial interpolation and a new methodology of data analysis based on phase space diagrams of temperature data, collected by means of multi-distributed, low cost and autonomous wireless sensors. A real coffee fermentation was supervised in the Cauca region (Colombia) with a network of 24 semi-passive TurboTag RFID temperature loggers with vacuum plastic cover, submerged directly in the fermenting mass. Temporal evolution and spatial distribution of temperature is described in terms of the phase diagram areas which characterizes the cyclic behaviour of temperature and highlights the significant heterogeneity of thermal conditions at different locations in the tank where the average temperature of the fermentation was 21.2 °C, although there were temperature ranges of 4.6°C, and average spatial standard deviation of ±1.21ºC. In the upper part of the tank we found high heterogeneity of temperatures, the higher temperatures and therefore the higher fermentation rates. While at the bottom, it has been computed an area in the phase diagram practically half of the area occupied by the sensors of the upper tank, therefore this location showed higher temperature homogeneity

Estudio comparativo en altimetría de métodos de ajuste y métodos de estimación robusta en el ajuste de observaciones para la detección de errores en una red básica topográfica situada en Torrelodones (Madrid).

El objetivo de este proyecto se basa en comprobar si es posible encontrar métodos de ajuste con los que poder corregir observaciones altimétricas con errores groseros, que pueden ser causados por el operador al realizar la observación o por otras circunstancias. El ajuste por el método clásico de mínimos cuadrados tiende a repartir los errores cometidos entre todas las observaciones, lo que da como resultado residuos muy elevados cuando se realiza el ajuste de una red cuyas observaciones poseen un error grosero o varios. Habitualmente, siempre y cuando haya redundancia en la toma de datos, se procederá a quitar la observación con mayor residuo y se realizará de nuevo el ajuste sin tener en cuenta dicha observación. También se estudiará el Test de Baarda y su comportamiento según sea el error cometido y el número de errores groseros que aparezcan en el ajuste. Pero el objetivo real es llevar a cabo un estudio en el que demostrar que el método de ajuste por técnicas de estimación robusta tiene una capacidad infinitamente superior a los mínimos cuadrados en la detección de errores groseros en observaciones, permitiendo de esta forma corregir dicho error e incluir esa observación en el ajuste. Este método de ajuste (estimación robusta) comenzó a emplearse en el campo de la fotogrametría. Es por ello que esta investigación irá encaminada al empleo de los estimadores robustos en aplicaciones topográficas. Se decidió iniciar este estudio porque era un proyecto innovador que nunca había sido realizado en altimetría y me inspiró un proyecto realizado anteriormente bastante similar a este pero centrándose en planimetría, con conclusiones muy favorables, lo que me animó a continuarlo centrándome en la altimetría.

Advanced Characterisation of a Coffee Fermenting Tank by Multi-distributed Wireless Sensors: Spatial Interpolation and Phase Space Graphs

The fermentation stage is considered to be one of the critical steps in coffee processing due to its impact on the final quality of the product. The objective of this work is to characterise the temperature gradients in a fermentation tank by multi-distributed, low-cost and autonomous wireless sensors (23 semi-passive TurboTag® radio-frequency identifier (RFID) temperature loggers). Spatial interpolation in polar coordinates and an innovative methodology based on phase space diagrams are used. A real coffee fermentation process was supervised in the Cauca region (Colombia) with sensors submerged directly in the fermenting mass, leading to a 4.6 °C temperature range within the fermentation process. Spatial interpolation shows a maximum instant radial temperature gradient of 0.1 °C/cm from the centre to the perimeter of the tank and a vertical temperature gradient of 0.25 °C/cm for sensors with equal polar coordinates. The combination of spatial interpolation and phase space graphs consistently enables the identification of five local behaviours during fermentation (hot and cold spots).

Sembradora híbrida Claydon, una construcción robusta, de manejo sencillo y resultado fiable

Sembradora híbrida Claydon, una construcción robusta, de manejo sencillo y resultado fiable

Semivolatile and Volatile Compound Evolution during Pyrolysis and Combustion of Colombian Coffee Husk

Thermal characterization of coffee husk (Coffea arabica) from Colombian coffee has been studied. Different products, mostly volatile and semivolatile compounds, were analyzed, paying special attention to 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) classified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) as priority pollutants, frequently used for checking toxicity in environmental samples. A fixed amount of raw material was exposed to different excess air ratios (λ = 0–2.33) and nominal temperature of 1123 K in a horizontal quartz reactor. The results show that coffee husk is a promising biomass for energetic exploitation with reduced formation of PAHs in a low air excess ratio. This implies reduction of carcinogenic potential in the limited presence of oxygen, demonstrated by calculating the carcinogenic potential (KE) for each experimental condition. Most volatile and semivolatile compounds followed different trends, with the oxygen presence prevailing their decomposition with increasing the air excess ratio.

Coffee / by B. E. Dahlgren, Chief Curator, Dept. of Botany.

no.22(1938)