Tracing CO2 emissions in global value chains

This paper integrates two lines of research into a unified conceptual framework: trade in global value chains and embodied emissions. This allows both value added and emissions to be systematically traced at the country, sector, and bilateral levels through various production network routes. By combining value-added and emissions accounting in a consistent way, the potential environmental cost (amount of emissions per unit of value added) along global value chains can be estimated. Using this unified accounting method, we trace CO2 emissions in the global production and trade network among 41 economies in 35 sectors from 1995 to 2009, basing our calculations on the World Input–Output Database, and show how they help us to better understand the impact of cross-country production sharing on the environment.

Industrial deepening in East Asia

Structural transformations are an indispensable element of sustained economic growth. Within the context of East Asia, this study focuses on industrial deepening, which refers to the formation of local linkages and the creation of a robust local supplier base. To investigate the progress of industrial deepening, this study introduces two kinds of domestic procurement measures in addition to the previously developed local content measures. Specifically, two kinds of vertical specialization measures are used to demonstrate the degree to which respective East Asian economies are specialized within their vertical production networks. The results clearly show that the advancement of production networks is likely to reduce domestic procurement ratios, even if local supplier bases are strengthened in the respective countries. Moreover, the trend of domestic procurement ratios differs depending on the characteristics of particular industries and the industrial policies adopted by individual countries.

Production sharing, demand spillovers and CO2 emissions : the case of Chinese regions in GVCs

This study adopts the perspective of demand spillovers to provide new insights regarding Chinese domestic-regions' production position in global value chains and their associated CO2 emissions. To this end, we constructed a new type of World Input-Output Database in which China's domestic interregional input-output table for 2007 is endogenously embedded. Then, the pattern of China's regional demand spillovers across both domestic regions and countries are revealed by employing this new database. These results were further connected to endowments theory, which help to make sense of the empirical results. It is found that China's regions locate relatively upstream in GVCs, and had CO2 emissions in net exports, which were entirely predicted by the environmental extended HOV model. Our study points to micro policy instruments to combat climate change, for example, the tax reform for energy inputs that helps to change the production pattern thus has impact on trade pattern and so forth.

Measuring smile curves in global value chains

The concept and logic of the "smile curve" in the context of global value chains has been widely used and discussed at the individual firm level, but rarely identified and investigated at the country and industry levels by using real data. This paper proposes an idea, based on an inter-country input-output model, to consistently measure both the strength and length of linkages between producers and consumers along global value chains. This idea allows for better identification and mapping of smile curves for countries and industries according to their positions and degrees of participation in a given conceptual value chain. Using the 1995-2011 World Input-Output Tables, several conceptual value chains are investigated, including exports of electrical and optical equipment from China and Mexico and exports of automobiles from Japan and Germany. The identified smile curves provide a very intuitive and visual image, which can significantly improve our understanding of the roles played by different countries and industries in global value chains. Further, the smile curves help identify the benefits gained by these countries and industries through their participation in global trade.

Production fragmentation, upstreamness, and value-added : evidence from factory Asia 1990-2005

We exploit the recent release of the 2005 Asian Input-Output Matrix to dress a picture of the geographic fragmentation of value added in Factory Asia from 1990 to 2005. We document 3 stylized facts. The first is that the average share of foreign value added embedded in production rose by about 7 percentage points between 1990 and 2005, from 9% to 16%. The second is that, contrary to popular belief, China's production embeds a smaller share of foreign value added than other Factory Asia countries'. Between 1990 and 2005 among Factory Asia countries China grew most after Japan as a source of value added to other countries' production. Third, country-industries at the upstream and downstream extremities of the supply chain embed a smaller share of foreign value added than those with intermediate levels of upstreamness.

A unified framework of trade in value added : physical, monetary, exchange rates, and GHG emissions

Koopman et al. (2014) developed a method to consistently decompose gross exports in value-added terms that accommodate infinite repercussions of international and inter-sector transactions. This provides a better understanding of trade in value added in global value chains than does the conventional gross exports method, which is affected by double-counting problems. However, the new framework is based on monetary input--output (IO) tables and cannot distinguish prices from quantities; thus, it is unable to consider financial adjustments through the exchange market. In this paper, we propose a framework based on a physical IO system, characterized by its linear programming equivalent that can clarify the various complexities relevant to the existing indicators and is proved to be consistent with Koopman's results when the physical decompositions are evaluated in monetary terms. While international monetary tables are typically described in current U.S. dollars, the physical framework can elucidate the impact of price adjustments through the exchange market. An iterative procedure to calculate the exchange rates is proposed, and we also show that the physical framework is also convenient for considering indicators associated with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Spatial spillover effects in determining China's regional CO2 emission growth : 2007-2010

This paper proposes an alternative input-output based spatial-structural decomposition analysis to elucidate the role of domestic-regional heterogeneity and interregional spillover effects in determining China's regional CO2 emission growth. Our empirical results based on the 2007 and 2010 Chinese interregional input-output tables show that the changes in most regions' final demand scale, final expenditure structure and export scale give positive spatial spillover effects on other regions' CO2 emission growth, the changes in most regions' consumption and export preference help the reduction of other regions' CO2 emissions, the changes in production technology, and investment preference may give positive or negative impacts on other region's CO2 emission growth through domestic supply chains. For some regions, the aggregate spillover effect from other regions may be larger than the intra-regional effect in determining regional emission growth. All these facts can significantly help better and deeper understanding on the driving forces of China's regional CO2 emission growth, thus can enrich the policy implication concerning a narrow definition of "carbon leakage" through domestic-interregional trade, and relevant political consensus about the responsibility sharing between developed and developing regions inside China.

How does firm heterogeneity information impact the estimation of embodied carbon emissions in Chinese exports?

Using an augmented Chinese input–output table in which information about firm ownership and type of traded goods are explicitly reported, we show that ignoring firm heterogeneity causes embodied CO2 emissions in Chinese exports to be overestimated by 20% at the national level, with huge differences at the sector level, for 2007. This is because different types of firm that are allocated to the same sector of the conventional Chinese input–output table vary greatly in terms of market share, production technology and carbon intensity. This overestimation of export-related carbon emissions would be even higher if it were not for the fact that 80% of CO2 emissions embodied in exports of foreign-owned firms are, in fact, emitted by Chinese-owned firms upstream of the supply chain. The main reason is that the largest CO2 emitter, the electricity sector located upstream in Chinese domestic supply chains, is strongly dominated by Chinese-owned firms with very high carbon intensity.

Consumption-based accounting of U.S. CO2 emissions from 1990 to 2010

To tackle global climate change, it is desirable to reduce CO2 emissions associated with household consumption in particular in developed countries, which tend to have much higher per capita household carbon footprints than less developed countries. Our results show that carbon intensity of different consumption categories in the U.S. varies significantly. The carbon footprint tends to increase with increasing income but at a decreasing rate due to additional income being spent on less carbon intensive consumption items. This general tendency is frequently compensated by higher frequency of international trips and higher housing related carbon emissions (larger houses and more space for consumption items). Our results also show that more than 30% of CO2 emissions associated with household consumption in the U.S. occur outside of the U.S. Given these facts, the design of carbon mitigation policies should take changing household consumption patterns and international trade into account.

Some geometrical methods for constructing contradiction measures on Atanassov's intuitionistic fuzzy sets

Trillas et al. (1999, Soft computing, 3 (4), 197–199) and Trillas and Cubillo (1999, On non-contradictory input/output couples in Zadeh's CRI proceeding, 28–32) introduced the study of contradiction in the framework of fuzzy logic because of the significance of avoiding contradictory outputs in inference processes. Later, the study of contradiction in the framework of Atanassov's intuitionistic fuzzy sets (A-IFSs) was initiated by Cubillo and Castiñeira (2004, Contradiction in intuitionistic fuzzy sets proceeding, 2180–2186). The axiomatic definition of contradiction measure was stated in Castiñeira and Cubillo (2009, International journal of intelligent systems, 24, 863–888). Likewise, the concept of continuity of these measures was formalized through several axioms. To be precise, they defined continuity when the sets ‘are increasing’, denominated continuity from below, and continuity when the sets ‘are decreasing’, or continuity from above. The aim of this paper is to provide some geometrical construction methods for obtaining contradiction measures in the framework of A-IFSs and to study what continuity properties these measures satisfy. Furthermore, we show the geometrical interpretations motivating the measures.

Methodology for adapting the parameters of a fuzzy system using the extended Kalman filter

When we try to analyze and to control a system whose model was obtained only based on input/output data, accuracy is essential in the model. On the other hand, to make the procedure practical, the modeling stage must be computationally efficient. In this regard, this paper presents the application of extended Kalman filter for the parametric adaptation of a fuzzy model

X-parameters based analytical design of non-linear microwave circuits Application to oscillator design

Resumen El diseño clásico de circuitos de microondas se basa fundamentalmente en el uso de los parámetros s, debido a su capacidad para caracterizar de forma exitosa el comportamiento de cualquier circuito lineal. La relación existente entre los parámetros s con los sistemas de medida actuales y con las herramientas de simulación lineal han facilitado su éxito y su uso extensivo tanto en el diseño como en la caracterización de circuitos y subsistemas de microondas. Sin embargo, a pesar de la gran aceptación de los parámetros s en la comunidad de microondas, el principal inconveniente de esta formulación reside en su limitación para predecir el comportamiento de sistemas no lineales reales. En la actualidad, uno de los principales retos de los diseñadores de microondas es el desarrollo de un contexto análogo que permita integrar tanto el modelado no lineal, como los sistemas de medidas de gran señal y los entornos de simulación no lineal, con el objetivo de extender las capacidades de los parámetros s a regímenes de operación en gran señal y por tanto, obtener una infraestructura que permita tanto la caracterización como el diseño de circuitos no lineales de forma fiable y eficiente. De acuerdo a esta filosofía, en los últimos años se han desarrollado diferentes propuestas como los parámetros X, de Agilent Technologies, o el modelo de Cardiff que tratan de proporcionar esta plataforma común en el ámbito de gran señal. Dentro de este contexto, uno de los objetivos de la presente Tesis es el análisis de la viabilidad del uso de los parámetros X en el diseño y simulación de osciladores para transceptores de microondas. Otro aspecto relevante en el análisis y diseño de circuitos lineales de microondas es la disposición de métodos analíticos sencillos, basados en los parámetros s del transistor, que permitan la obtención directa y rápida de las impedancias de carga y fuente necesarias para cumplir las especificaciones de diseño requeridas en cuanto a ganancia, potencia de salida, eficiencia o adaptación de entrada y salida, así como la determinación analítica de parámetros de diseño clave como el factor de estabilidad o los contornos de ganancia de potencia. Por lo tanto, el desarrollo de una formulación de diseño analítico, basada en los parámetros X y similar a la existente en pequeña señal, permitiría su uso en aplicaciones no lineales y supone un nuevo reto que se va a afrontar en este trabajo. Por tanto, el principal objetivo de la presente Tesis consistiría en la elaboración de una metodología analítica basada en el uso de los parámetros X para el diseño de circuitos no lineales que jugaría un papel similar al que juegan los parámetros s en el diseño de circuitos lineales de microondas. Dichos métodos de diseño analíticos permitirían una mejora significativa en los actuales procedimientos de diseño disponibles en gran señal, así como una reducción considerable en el tiempo de diseño, lo que permitiría la obtención de técnicas mucho más eficientes. Abstract In linear world, classical microwave circuit design relies on the s-parameters due to its capability to successfully characterize the behavior of any linear circuit. Thus the direct use of s-parameters in measurement systems and in linear simulation analysis tools, has facilitated its extensive use and success in the design and characterization of microwave circuits and subsystems. Nevertheless, despite the great success of s-parameters in the microwave community, the main drawback of this formulation is its limitation in the behavior prediction of real non-linear systems. Nowadays, the challenge of microwave designers is the development of an analogue framework that allows to integrate non-linear modeling, large-signal measurement hardware and non-linear simulation environment in order to extend s-parameters capabilities to non-linear regimen and thus, provide the infrastructure for non-linear design and test in a reliable and efficient way. Recently, different attempts with the aim to provide this common platform have been introduced, as the Cardiff approach and the Agilent X-parameters. Hence, this Thesis aims to demonstrate the X-parameter capability to provide this non-linear design and test framework in CAD-based oscillator context. Furthermore, the classical analysis and design of linear microwave transistorbased circuits is based on the development of simple analytical approaches, involving the transistor s-parameters, that are able to quickly provide an analytical solution for the input/output transistor loading conditions as well as analytically determine fundamental parameters as the stability factor, the power gain contours or the input/ output match. Hence, the development of similar analytical design tools that are able to extend s-parameters capabilities in small-signal design to non-linear ap- v plications means a new challenge that is going to be faced in the present work. Therefore, the development of an analytical design framework, based on loadindependent X-parameters, constitutes the core of this Thesis. These analytical nonlinear design approaches would enable to significantly improve current large-signal design processes as well as dramatically decrease the required design time and thus, obtain more efficient approaches.

Implementación de Algoritmos de Procesado de Señal sobre FPGA: Especificación, Reutilización y Exploración del Espacio de Diseño

Esta Tesis aborda el diseño e implementación de aplicaciones en el campo de procesado de señal, utilizando como plataforma los dispositivos reconfigurables FPGA. Esta plataforma muestra una alta capacidad de lógica, e incorpora elementos orientados al procesado de señal, que unido a su relativamente bajo coste, la hacen ideal para el desarrollo de aplicaciones de procesado de señal cuando se requiere realizar un procesado intensivo y se buscan unas altas prestaciones. Sin embargo, el coste asociado al desarrollo en estas plataformas es elevado. Mientras que el aumento en la capacidad lógica de los dispositivos FPGA permite el desarrollo de sistemas completos, los requisitos de altas prestaciones obligan a que en muchas ocasiones se deban optimizar operadores a muy bajo nivel. Además de las restricciones temporales que imponen este tipo de aplicaciones, también tienen asociadas restricciones de área asociadas al dispositivo, lo que obliga a evaluar y verificar entre diferentes alternativas de implementación. El ciclo de diseño e implementación para estas aplicaciones se puede prolongar tanto, que es normal que aparezcan nuevos modelos de FPGA, con mayor capacidad y mayor velocidad, antes de completar el sistema, y que hagan a las restricciones utilizadas para el diseño del sistema inútiles. Para mejorar la productividad en el desarrollo de estas aplicaciones, y con ello acortar su ciclo de diseño, se pueden encontrar diferentes métodos. Esta Tesis se centra en la reutilización de componentes hardware previamente diseñados y verificados. Aunque los lenguajes HDL convencionales permiten reutilizar componentes ya definidos, se pueden realizar mejoras en la especificación que simplifiquen el proceso de incorporar componentes a nuevos diseños. Así, una primera parte de la Tesis se orientará a la especificación de diseños basada en componentes predefinidos. Esta especificación no sólo busca mejorar y simplificar el proceso de añadir componentes a una descripción, sino que también busca mejorar la calidad del diseño especificado, ofreciendo una mayor posibilidad de configuración e incluso la posibilidad de informar de características de la propia descripción. Reutilizar una componente ya descrito depende en gran medida de la información que se ofrezca para su integración en un sistema. En este sentido los HDLs convencionales únicamente proporcionan junto con la descripción del componente la interfaz de entrada/ salida y un conjunto de parámetros para su configuración, mientras que el resto de información requerida normalmente se acompaña mediante documentación externa. En la segunda parte de la Tesis se propondrán un conjunto de encapsulados cuya finalidad es incorporar junto con la propia descripción del componente, información que puede resultar útil para su integración en otros diseños. Incluyendo información de la implementación, ayuda a la configuración del componente, e incluso información de cómo configurar y conectar al componente para realizar una función. Finalmente se elegirá una aplicación clásica en el campo de procesado de señal, la transformada rápida de Fourier (FFT), y se utilizará como ejemplo de uso y aplicación, tanto de las posibilidades de especificación como de los encapsulados descritos. El objetivo del diseño realizado no sólo mostrará ejemplos de la especificación propuesta, sino que también se buscará obtener una implementación de calidad comparable con resultados de la literatura. Para ello, el diseño realizado se orientará a su implementación en FPGA, aprovechando tanto los elementos lógicos generalistas como elementos específicos de bajo nivel disponibles en estos dispositivos. Finalmente, la especificación de la FFT obtenida se utilizará para mostrar cómo incorporar en su interfaz información que ayude para su selección y configuración desde fases tempranas del ciclo de diseño. Abstract This PhD. thesis addresses the design and implementation of signal processing applications using reconfigurable FPGA platforms. This kind of platform exhibits high logic capability, incorporates dedicated signal processing elements and provides a low cost solution, which makes it ideal for the development of signal processing applications, where intensive data processing is required in order to obtain high performance. However, the cost associated to the hardware development on these platforms is high. While the increase in logic capacity of FPGA devices allows the development of complete systems, high-performance constraints require the optimization of operators at very low level. In addition to time constraints imposed by these applications, Area constraints are also applied related to the particular device, which force to evaluate and verify a design among different implementation alternatives. The design and implementation cycle for these applications can be tedious and long, being therefore normal that new FPGA models with a greater capacity and higher speed appear before completing the system implementation. Thus, the original constraints which guided the design of the system become useless. Different methods can be used to improve the productivity when developing these applications, and consequently shorten their design cycle. This PhD. Thesis focuses on the reuse of hardware components previously designed and verified. Although conventional HDLs allow the reuse of components already defined, their specification can be improved in order to simplify the process of incorporating new design components. Thus, a first part of the PhD. Thesis will focus on the specification of designs based on predefined components. This specification improves and simplifies the process of adding components to a description, but it also seeks to improve the quality of the design specified with better configuration options and even offering to report on features of the description. Hardware reuse of a component for its integration into a system largely depends on the information it offers. In this sense the conventional HDLs only provide together with the component description, the input/output interface and a set of parameters for its configuration, while other information is usually provided by external documentation. In the second part of the Thesis we will propose a formal way of encapsulation which aims to incorporate with the component description information that can be useful for its integration into other designs. This information will include features of the own implementation, but it will also support component configuration, and even information on how to configure and connect the component to carry out a function. Finally, the fast Fourier transform (FFT) will be chosen as a well-known signal processing application. It will be used as case study to illustrate the possibilities of proposed specification and encapsulation formalisms. The objective of the FFT design is not only to show practical examples of the proposed specification, but also to obtain an implementation of a quality comparable to scientific literature results. The design will focus its implementation on FPGA platforms, using general logic elements as base of the implementation, but also taking advantage of low-level specific elements available on these devices. Last, the specification of the obtained FFT will be used to show how to incorporate in its interface information to assist in the selection and configuration process early in the design cycle.

Exploring the feasibility of integrating water issues into the CAPRI model

Although numerous modelling efforts have integrated food and water considerations at the farm or river basin level, very few agro-economic models are able to jointly assess water and food policies at the global level. The present report explores the feasibility of integrating water considerations into the CAPRI model. First, a literature review of modelling approaches integrating food and water issues has been conducted. Three agro-economic models, IMPACT, WATERSIM and GLOBIOM, have been analysed in detail. In addition, biophysical and hydrological models estimating agricultural water use have also been studied, in particular the global hydrological model WATERGAP and the LISFLOOD model. Thanks to the programming approach of its supply module, CAPRI shows a high potentiality to integrate environmental indicators as well as to enter new resource constraints (land potentially irrigated, irrigation water) and input-output relationships. At least in theory, the activity-based approach of the regional programming model in CAPRI allows differentiating between rainfed and irrigated activities. The suggested approach to include water into the CAPRI model involves creating an irrigation module and a water use module. The development of the CAPRI water module will enable to provide scientific assessment on agricultural water use within the EU and to analyze agricultural pressures on water resources. The feasibility of the approach has been tested in a pilot case study including two NUTS 2 regions (Andalucia in Spain and Midi-Pyrenees in France). Preliminary results are presented, highlighting the interrelations between water and agricultural developments in Europe. As a next step, it is foreseen to further develop the CAPRI water module to account for competition between agricultural and non-agricultural water use. This will imply building a water use sub-module to compute water use balances.

Sonophone: Desarrollo y evaluación de un sonómetro profesional para iOS

La medida de la presión sonora es un proceso de extrema importancia para la ingeniería acústica, de aplicación en numerosas áreas de esta disciplina, como la acústica arquitectónica o el control de ruido. Sobre todo en esta última, es necesario poder efectuar medidas precisas en condiciones muy diversas. Por otra parte, la ubicuidad de los dispositivos móviles inteligentes (smartphones, tabletas, etc.), dispositivos que integran potencia de procesado, conectividad, interactividad y una interfaz intuitiva en un tamaño reducido, abre la posibilidad de su uso como sistemas de medida de calidad y de coste bajo. En este Proyecto se pretende utilizar las capacidades de entrada y salida, procesado, conectividad inalámbrica y geolocalización de los dispositivos móviles basados en iOS, en concreto el iPhone, para implementar un sistema de medidas acústicas que iguale o supere las prestaciones de los sonómetros existentes en el mercado. SonoPhone permitirá, mediante la conexión de un micrófono de medida adecuado, la realización de medidas de acuerdo a las normas técnicas en vigor, así como la posibilidad de programar, configurar y almacenar o trasmitir las medidas realizadas, que además estarán geolocalizadas con el GPS integrado en el dispositivo móvil. También se permitirá enviar los datos de la medida a un almacenamiento remoto en la nube. La aplicación tiene una estructura modular en la que un módulo de adquisición de datos lee la señal del micrófono, un back-end efectúa el procesado necesario, y otros módulos permiten la calibración del dispositivo y programar y configurar las medidas, así como su almacenamiento y transmisión en red. Una interfaz de usuario (GUI) permite visualizar las medidas y efectuar las configuraciones deseadas por el usuario, todo ello en tiempo real. Además de implementar la aplicación, se ha realizado una prueba de funcionamiento para determinar si el hardware del iPhone es adecuado para la medida de la presión acústica de acuerdo a las normas internacionales. Sound pressure measurement is an extremely important process in the field of acoustic engineering, with applications in numerous subfields, like for instance building acoustics and noise control, where it is necessary to be able to accurately measure sound pressure in very diverse (and sometimes adverse) conditions. On the other hand, the growing ubiquity of mobile devices such as smartphones or tablets, which combine processing power, connectivity, interactivity and an intuitive interface in a small size, makes it possible to use these devices as quality low-cost measurement systems. This Project aims to use the input-output capabilities of iOS-based mobile devices, in particular the iPhone, together with their processing power, wireless connectivity and geolocation features, to implement an acoustic measurement system that rivals the performance of existing devices. SonoPhone allows, with the addition of an adequate measurement microphone, to carry out measurements that comply with current technical regulations, as well as programming, configuring, storing and transmitting the results of the measurement. These measurements will be geolocated using the integrated GPS, and can be transmitted effortlessly to a remote cloud storage. The application is structured in modular fashion. A data acquisition module reads the signal from the microphone, while a back-end module carries out the necessary processing. Other modules permit the device to be calibrated, or control the configuration of the measurement and its storage or transmission. A Graphical User Interface (GUI) allows visual feedback on the measurement in progress, and provides the user with real-time control over the measurement parameters. Not only an application has been developed; a laboratory test was carried out with the goal of determining if the hardware of the iPhone permits the whole system to comply with international regulations regarding sound level meters.