Multiple invasions of Gypsy and Micropia retroelements in genus Zaprionus and melanogaster subgroup of the genus Drosophila

Abstract Background The Zaprionus genus shares evolutionary features with the melanogaster subgroup, such as space and time of origin. Although little information about the transposable element content in the Zaprionus genus had been accumulated, some of their elements appear to be more closely related with those of the melanogaster subgroup, indicating that these two groups of species were involved in horizontal transfer events during their evolution. Among these elements, the Gypsy and the Micropia retroelements were chosen for screening in seven species of the two Zaprionus subgenera, Anaprionus and Zaprionus. Results Screening allowed the identification of diverse Gypsy and Micropia retroelements only in species of the Zaprionus subgenus, showing that they are transcriptionally active in the sampled species. The sequences of each retroelement were closely related to those of the melanogaster species subgroup, and the most parsimonious hypothesis would be that 15 horizontal transfer events shaped their evolution. The Gypsy retroelement of the melanogaster subgroup probably invaded the Zaprionus genomes about 11 MYA. In contrast, the Micropia retroelement may have been introduced into the Zaprionus subgenus and the melanogaster subgroup from an unknown donor more recently (~3 MYA). Conclusion Gypsy and Micropia of Zaprionus and melanogaster species share similar evolutionary patterns. The sharing of evolutionary, ecological and ethological features probably allowed these species to pass through a permissive period of transposable element invasion, explaining the proposed waves of horizontal transfers.

Identification of unannotated exons of low abundance transcripts in Drosophila melanogaster and cloning of a new serine protease gene upregulated upon injury

Abstract Background The sequencing of the D.melanogaster genome revealed an unexpected small number of genes (~ 14,000) indicating that mechanisms acting on generation of transcript diversity must have played a major role in the evolution of complex metazoans. Among the most extensively used mechanisms that accounts for this diversity is alternative splicing. It is estimated that over 40% of Drosophila protein-coding genes contain one or more alternative exons. A recent transcription map of the Drosophila embryogenesis indicates that 30% of the transcribed regions are unannotated, and that 1/3 of this is estimated as missed or alternative exons of previously characterized protein-coding genes. Therefore, the identification of the variety of expressed transcripts depends on experimental data for its final validation and is continuously being performed using different approaches. We applied the Open Reading Frame Expressed Sequence Tags (ORESTES) methodology, which is capable of generating cDNA data from the central portion of rare transcripts, in order to investigate the presence of hitherto unnanotated regions of Drosophila transcriptome. Results Bioinformatic analysis of 1,303 Drosophila ORESTES clusters identified 68 sequences derived from unannotated regions in the current Drosophila genome version (4.3). Of these, a set of 38 was analysed by polyA+ northern blot hybridization, validating 17 (50%) new exons of low abundance transcripts. For one of these ESTs, we obtained the cDNA encompassing the complete coding sequence of a new serine protease, named SP212. The SP212 gene is part of a serine protease gene cluster located in the chromosome region 88A12-B1. This cluster includes the predicted genes CG9631, CG9649 and CG31326, which were previously identified as up-regulated after immune challenges in genomic-scale microarray analysis. In agreement with the proposal that this locus is co-regulated in response to microorganisms infection, we show here that SP212 is also up-regulated upon injury. Conclusion Using the ORESTES methodology we identified 17 novel exons from low abundance Drosophila transcripts, and through a PCR approach the complete CDS of one of these transcripts was defined. Our results show that the computational identification and manual inspection are not sufficient to annotate a genome in the absence of experimentally derived data.

Species of Drosophila (Diptera: Drosophilidae) attracted to dung and carrion baited pitfall traps in the Uruguayan Eastern Serranías

This study investigates the species richness and abundance of Drosophila Fallén, 1823 attracted to dung and carrion baited pitfall traps in natural areas with heterogeneous habitats at the Sierra de Minas, Eastern Serranías, southeastern Uruguay. Collecting was carried out on a monthly basis (May 2002 through April 2003). Drosophilids accounted for 0.84% (n = 131) and 3.61% (n = 158) of the Diptera collected from dung (n = 15,630) and carrion (n = 4,382) pitfall traps, respectively. A total of 12 species were identified, 11 of which belong to the subgenus Drosophila (the richest) and one to the subgenus Sophophora Sturtevant, 1939. Over 90% of the Drosophila specimens collected belong to five species of the subgenus Drosophila, namely D. gaucha Jaeger & Salzano, 1953, D. immigrans Sturtevant, 1921, D. mediovittata Frota-Pessoa, 1954, D. aff. nappae Vilela, Valente & Basso-da-Silva, 2004, and D. ornatifrons Duda, 1927. Drosophila cardini Sturtevant, 1916 is recorded for the first time from Uruguay. Drosophila abundance and species richness in the four habitats sampled in the Uruguayan Eastern Serranías, namely woodlands sierra, riparian forest, pine plantation and grazing grassland, were considered to be a function of habitat conservation. Diversity indices were low in all habitats. Different habitats supported particular coprophilous and necrophilous Drosophila species. The woodland sierra represents the most preserved habitat, and contributed with the highest species richness observed. Drosophila ornatifrons was the dominant species, with a restricted habitat distribution. On the other hand, grazed grassland, an environment modified by livestock management, had the lowest species richness: only a few specimens of D. repleta Wollaston, 1858. Regarding species composition, significant differences were found in some pairwise comparisons of groups of Drosophila species that included D. ornatifrons. Fly attraction to dung can be exploited as an alternative and/or complementary collecting method in ecological studies of Drosophila assemblages in natural areas.

Identification of Drosophila heart-specific Cis-Regulatory Modules under Hox control

Cardiac morphogenesis is a complex process governed by evolutionarily conserved transcription factors and signaling molecules. The Drosophila cardiac tube is linear, made of 52 pairs of cardiomyocytes (CMs), which express specific transcription factor genes that have human homologues implicated in Congenital Heart Diseases (CHDs) (NKX2-5, GATA4 and TBX5). The Drosophila cardiac tube is linear and composed of a rostral portion named aorta and a caudal one called heart, distinguished by morphological and functional differences controlled by Hox genes, key regulators of axial patterning. Overexpression and inactivation of the Hox gene abdominal-A (abd-A), which is expressed exclusively in the heart, revealed that abd-A controls heart identity. The aim of our work is to isolate the heart-specific cisregulatory sequences of abd-A direct target genes, the realizator genes granting heart identity. In each segment of the heart, four pairs of cardiomyocytes (CMs) express tinman (tin), homologous to NKX2-5, and acquire strong contractile and automatic rhythmic activities. By tyramide amplified FISH, we found that seven genes, encoding ion channels, pumps or transporters, are specifically expressed in the Tin-CMs of the heart. We initially used online available tools to identify their heart-specific cisregutatory modules by looking for Conserved Non-coding Sequences containing clusters of binding sites for various cardiac transcription factors, including Hox proteins. Based on these data we generated several reporter gene constructs and transgenic embryos, but none of them showed reporter gene expression in the heart. In order to identify additional abd-A target genes, we performed microarray experiments comparing the transcriptomes of aorta versus heart and identified 144 genes overexpressed in the heart. In order to find the heart-specific cis-regulatory regions of these target genes we developed a new bioinformatic approach where prediction is based on pattern matching and ordered statistics. We first retrieved Conserved Noncoding Sequences from the alignment between the D.melanogaster and D.pseudobscura genomes. We scored for combinations of conserved occurrences of ABD-A, ABD-B, TIN, PNR, dMEF2, MADS box, T-box and E-box sites and we ranked these results based on two independent strategies. On one hand we ranked the putative cis-regulatory sequences according to best scored ABD-A biding sites, on the other hand we scored according to conservation of binding sites. We integrated and ranked again the two lists obtained independently to produce a final rank. We generated nGFP reporter construct flies for in vivo validation. We identified three 1kblong heart-specific enhancers. By in vivo and in vitro experiments we are determining whether they are direct abd-A targets, demonstrating the role of a Hox gene in the realization of heart identity. The identified abd-A direct target genes may be targets also of the NKX2-5, GATA4 and/or TBX5 homologues tin, pannier and Doc genes, respectively. The identification of sequences coregulated by a Hox protein and the homologues of transcription factors causing CHDs, will provide a mean to test whether these factors function as Hox cofactors granting cardiac specificity to Hox proteins, increasing our knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying CHDs. Finally, it may be investigated whether these Hox targets are involved in CHDs.

Insulin and TOR pathways regulate cellular and organismal growth through the myc oncogene in Drosophila

A large body of literature documents in both mice and Drosophila the involvement of Insulin pathway in growth regulation, probably due to its role in glucose and lipid import, nutrient storage, and translation of RNAs implicated in ribosome biogenesis (Vanhaesebroeck et al. 2001). Moreover several lines of evidence implicate this pathway as a causal factor in cancer (Sale, 2008; Zeng and Yee 2007; Hursting et al., 2007; Chan et al., 2008). With regards to Myc, studies in cell culture have implied this family of transcription factors as regulators of the cell cycle that are rapidly induced in response to growth factors. Myc is a potent oncogene, rearranged and overexpressed in a wide range of human tumors and necessary during development. Its conditional knock-out in mice results in reduction of body weight due to defect in cell proliferation (Trumpp et al. 2001). Evidence from in vivo studies in Drosophila and mammals suggests a critical function for myc in cell growth regulation (Iritani and Eisenman 1999; Johnston et al. 1999; Kim et al. 2000; de Alboran et al. 2001; Douglas et al. 2001). This role is supported by our analysis of Myc target genes in Drosophila, which include genes involved in RNA binding, processing, ribosome biogenesis and nucleolar function (Orain et al 2003, Bellosta et al., 2005, Hulf et al, 2005). The fact that Insulin signaling and Myc have both been associated with growth control suggests that they may interact with each other. However, genetic evidence suggesting that Insulin signaling regulates Myc in vivo is lacking. In this work we were able to show, for the first time, a direct modulation of dMyc in response to Insulin stimulation/silencing both in vitro and in vivo. Our results suggest that dMyc up-regulation in response to DILPs signaling occurs both at the mRNA and potein level. We believe dMyc protein accumulation after Insulin signaling activation is conditioned to AKT-dependent GSK3β/sgg inactivation. In fact, we were able to demonstate that dMyc protein stabilization through phosphorylation is a conserved feature between Drosophila and vertebrates and requires multiple events. The final phosphorylation step, that results in a non-stable form of dMyc protein, ready to be degraded by the proteasome, is performed by GSK3β/sgg kinase (Sears, 2004). At the same time we demonstrated that CKI family of protein kinase are required to prime dMyc phosphorylation. DILPs and TOR/Nutrient signalings are known to communicate at several levels (Neufeld, 2003). For this reason we further investigated TOR contribution to dMyc-dependent growth regulation. dMyc protein accumulates in S2 cells after aminoacid stimulation, while its mRNA does not seem to be affected upon TORC1 inhibition, suggesting that the Nutrient pathway regulates dMyc mostly post-transcriptionally. In support to this hypothesis, we observed a TORC1-dependent GSK3β/sgg inactivation, further confirming a synergic effect of DILPs and Nutrients on dMyc protein stability. On the other hand, our data show that Rheb but not S6K, both downstream of the TOR kinase, contributes to the dMyc-induced growth of the eye tissue, suggesting that Rheb controls growth independently of S6K.. Moreover, Rheb seems to be able to regulate organ size during development inducing cell death, a mechanism no longer occurring in absence of dmyc. These observations suggest that Rheb might control growth through a new pathway independent of TOR/S6K but still dependent on dMyc. In order to dissect the mechanism of dMyc regulation in response to these events, we analyzed the relative contribution of Rheb, TOR and S6K to dMyc expression, biochemically in S2 cells and in vivo in morphogenetic clones and we further confirmed an interplay between Rheb and Myc that seems to be indipendent from TOR. In this work we clarified the mechanisms that stabilize dMyc protein in vitro and in vivo and we observed for the first time dMyc responsiveness to DILPs and TOR. At the same time, we discovered a new branch of the Nutrient pathway that appears to drive growth through dMyc but indipendently from TOR. We believe our work shed light on the mechanisms cells use to grow or restrain growth in presence/absence of growth promoting cues and for this reason it contributes to understand the physiology of growth control.

Morphogenesis of follicular epithelium in Drosophila melanogaster: function of von Hippel-Lindau tumour suppressor gene

During my PhD I have been involved in several projects regarding the morphogenesis of the follicular epithelium, such as the analysis of the pathways that correlate follicular epithelium patterning and eggshell genes expression. Moreover, I used the follicular epithelium as a model system to analyze the function of the Drosophila homolog of the human von Hippel-Lindau (d-VHL) during oogenesis, in order to gain insight into the role of h-VHL for the pathogenesis of VHL disease. h-VHL is implicated in a variety of processes and there is now a greater appreciation of HIF-independent h-VHL functions that are relevant to tumour development, including maintenance and organization of the primary cilium, maintenance of the differentiated phenotype in renal cells and regulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. However, the function of h-VHL gene during development has not been fully understood. It was previously shown that d-VHL down-regulates the motility of tubular epithelial cells (tracheal cells) during embryogenesis. Epithelial morphogenesis is important for organogenesis and pivotal for carcinogenesis, but mechanisms that control it are poorly understood. The Drosophila follicular epithelium is a genetically tractable model to understand these mechanisms in vivo. Therefore, to examine whether d-VHL has a role in epithelial morphogenesis and maintenance, I performed genetic and molecular analyses by using in vivo and in vitro approaches. From my analysis, I determined that d-VHL binds to and stabilizes microtubules. Loss of d-VHL depolymerizes the microtubule network during oogenesis, leading to a possible deregulation in the subcellular trafficking transport of polarity markers from Golgi apparatus to the different domains in which follicle cells are divided. The analysis carried out has allowed to establish a significant role of d-VHL in the maintenance of the follicular epithelium integrity.

Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur embryonalen Entwicklung identifizierter Vorläuferzellen des zentralen Nervensystems von Drosophila melanogaster

Zusammenfassung Das ventrale Nervensystem (vNS) von Drosophila melanogaster entsteht aus zwei verschiedenen Populationen von Vorläufern, den mesektodermalen oder Mittellinien (ML)-Vorläufern und den neuroektodermalen Vorläufern oder Neuroblasten (NBs). Beide Populationen unterscheiden sich in vielen Aspekten, wie z.B. Genexpression, Teilungsverhalten und Zellstammbaum. Die ca. 30 NBs pro Hemisegment delaminieren als Einzelzellen aus dem Neuroektoderm und bilden ein invariantes subepidermales Muster in der neu entstandenen neuralen Zellschicht aus. Sie sind dort aufgrund ihrer Lage und der Expression spezifischer molekularer Marker individuell identifizierbar. Um die Mechanismen zu verstehen, die zur Determination und Differenzierung von ZNS Zellen führen, ist es eine Grundvoraussetzung, die Zellstammbäume aller Vorläufer zu kennen. Unter Verwendung des lipophilen in vivo Fluoreszenzfarbstoffs DiI wurden in früheren Arbeiten die Zellstammbäume der ML-Vorläufer und von 17 NBs, die aus der ventralen Hälfte des Neuroektoderms stammten, beschrieben. In der hier vorgelegten Arbeit wurden die Zellstammbäume von 13 NBs, die aus dem dorsalen Teil des Neuroektoderms delaminierten, beschrieben und 12 davon identifizierten Vorläufern zugeordnet. Darüber hinaus wurde ein bisher nicht beschriebener NB (NB 1-3) identifiziert und anhand morphologischer und molekularer Kriterien charakterisiert. Insgesamt produzierten die NBs ca. 120 Neurone und 22 bis 27 Gliazellen pro Hemineuromer, die in eine systematische Terminologie eingefügt wurden. Insgesamt besteht damit ein Neuromer des embryonalen vNS von Drosophila aus ca. 700 Neuronen (350 pro Hemineuromer) und 60 Gliazellen (30 pro Hemineuromer), die von NBs abstammen. Hinzu kommen ca. 12 ML-Neurone und 2 bis 4 ML-Glia pro Neuromer. Damit stammten die meisten Gliazellen im embryonalen vNS von Drosophila von NBs ab, die aus dem dorsalen Neuroektoderm hervorgingen. Zwei dieser NBs hatten ausschließlich gliale Nachkommen (NB 6-4A, GP) und fünf generierten sowohl Glia als auch Neurone (NBs 1-3, 2-5, 5-6, 6-4T, 7-4). Die übrigen sieben Zellstammbäume (NBs 2-4, 3-3, 3-5, 4-3, 4-4, 5-4, Klon y) waren rein neuronal. Es war ferner möglich, das bereits bekannte laterale Cluster von even-skipped exprimierenden Zellen (EL) dem Stammbaum von NB 3-3 zuzuordnen. Zusammen mit den zuvor beschriebenen Klonen sind damit mehr als 90% der thorakalen und abdominalen Zellstammbäume im embryonalen vNS von Drosophila bekannt. Darüber hinaus sind zuvor identifizierte Neurone und die meisten Gliazellen einem bestimmten Stammbaum zugeordnet und damit mit einer ontogenetischen Geschichte versehen. Dieser komplette Datensatz liefert eine Grundlage für die Interpretation mutanter Phänotypen und für zukünftige Untersuchungen über die Festlegung von Zellschicksalen und die Differenzierung von Zellen. Dies könnte dazu beitragen, das Verhältnis zwischen Herkunft der Zelle, Genexpression und Zellfunktion besser zu verstehen. Die wesentliche Funktion neuronaler Zellen ist die Integration und Weiterleitung von elektrischen Signalen. Mithin ist die Ausbildung elektrischer Eigenschaften (Elektrogenese) ein wesentlicher Aspekt der neuronalen Entwicklung. Um dabei zelltypspezifische Unterschiede zu finden, ist die Arbeit an definierten Zellpopulationen eine zwingende Voraussetzung. Es wurde daher hier ein in vitro System verwendet, das die selektive Kultivierung identifizierter embryonaler Vorläufer unter verschiedenen Bedingungen erlaubt. Da die Zellstammbäume der ML-Vorläufer besonders einfach sind und die ML-Zellen zudem in vielen Aspekten von den neuroektodermalen Zellen verschieden sind (s.o.), wurden die ML-Neurone als erstes Modellsystem ausgewählt. Unter Verwendung der Patch-clamp Technik wurden die in dieser definierten Zellpopulation auftretenden Ionenströme detailliert beschrieben. ML-Neurone exprimierten zumindest zwei verschiedene Typen von spannungsgesteuerten K+-Strömen (IA und IK), einen spannungsabhängigen Na+-Strom und zwei spannungsgesteuerte Ca(Ba)2+-Ströme. Darüber hinaus reagierten sie auf die Neurotransmitter ACh und GABA. Die meisten Ionenströme in den ML-Neuronen waren, trotz ihrer ontogenetischen Besonderheit, annähernd identisch mit denen, die in anderen Drosophila-Neuronen gefunden wurden. Ihnen fehlte allerdings eine anhaltende Komponente des Na+-Stroms, und sie waren homogen in ihrer Aktivität. Selbst bei anhaltender elektrischer Stimulation generierten sie immer nur ein Aktionspotential. Sie sind daher möglicherweise spezifisch hinsichtlich ihrer Signalleitungseigenschaften. Interessanterweise zeigte sich durch Verwendung verschiedener Kulturbedingungen, daß die Expression der spannungsgesteuerten K+-Kanäle weitgehend zellautonom erfolgte, während die Expression der anderen Ströme stark durch das Vohandensein von Neuritenkontakten beeinflußt wurde. Vorläufige Untersuchungen lassen darauf schließen, daß der involvierte molekulare Mechanismus unabhängig von synaptischer Transmission ist. In einer Art 'Ausblick' wurde schließlich die Validität von in vitro Ableitungen durch Analyse spannungsgesteuerter K+-Ströme in einer neuen in situ Präparation geprüft, die verschiedene Bereiche des Drosophila-ZNS für elektrophysiologische Untersuchungen zugänglich macht. Damit ist ein experimentelles System etabliert, daß den direkten Vergleich von in vitro und in situ Daten an definierten Zellpopulationen ermöglichen sollte.

Funktionale Analyse des CpY/DmX Gens aus Chironomus und Drosophila melanogaster

Zusammenfassung: Funktionale Analyse des CpY/DmX Gens aus Chironomus und Drosophila melanogaster Bei CpY und DmX handelt es sich um homologe neuartige Gene aus den Dipteren Chironomus piger und Drosophila melanogaster. CpY und DmX bestehen aus 15 Exons, die für eine mRNA von ca. 11,5 kb kodieren.Das Gen hat eine genomische Länge von ca. 15 kb. Die abgeleiteten Genprodukte sind durch eine hohe Anzahl von WD-Repeats gekennzeichnet.WD-Proteine besitzen in der Regel regulatorische Funktionen in allen möglichen Bereichen. Ein Strukturvergleich mit homologen Genen legt die Vermutung nahe, daß sich sowohl am N- als auch am C-Terminus eine WD-Propellerstruktur befindet. CpY aus Chironomus piger ist in einem hromosomalen Abschnitt lokalisiert, der den Kern eines evolvierendenGeschlechtschromosoms darstellt. Dieses Gen besitzt im Gegensatz zu DmX geschlechtsspezifisch in Introns integrierte Transposons und wird quantitativ geschlechtsspezifisch gespleißt. DmX ist auf dem X-Chromosom im Bereich 5D6-5E1 lokalisiert, es konnte jedoch kein geschlechtsspezifisches Expressionsmuster diagnostiziert werden. Die Transkriptionsanalyse ergab,daß DmX während der Oogenese und der gesamten Embryonalentwicklung transkribiert wird. Dabei wird neben einer ubiquitären Grundexpression DmX in einer gewebespezifischen Weise exprimiert. Die DmX-Transkriptewandern offensichtlich - wie die CpY-Transkripte - in großer Menge in die reifende Oozyte. Bei DmX/CpY könnte es sich also um ein maternales Effektgen handeln. Während der Embryogenese können zunächst DmX-Transkripte am posterioren Pol nachgewiesen werden. Danach färben die vorderen und hinteren Mitteldarmvorläufer, dann spezifische Zellen im ZNS und in reifen Embryonen das gesamte ZNS, Sinnesorgan-Anlagen im Kopf, sowie der Enddarm. Das dem DmX benachbarte Gen DmSPX, welchen mit diesem einen gemeinsamen 174 bp großen bidirektionalen Promoter besitzt, zeigt ein von DmX unterschiedliches Transkriptionsmuster. Mit einer Reihe von Keimbahntransformationen konnten die für eine ordnungsgemäße Expression hinreichenden regulatorischen Bereiche identifiziert werden. In Versuchen, mittels verschiedener 'Antisense'-Strategien einen Phänotyp zu generieren, konnte kein spezifischer Phänotyp nachgewiesen werden. Durch die erfolgreiche Keimbahntranformationeines Rettungsvektors, welcher ein intaktes DmX-Gen enthält, konnte der Phänotyp von EMS-DmX-Mutanten identifiziert werden: Nach anfänglich normaler Embryonalentwicklung werden die Larven im Laufe des L1-Stadiums schlaff und inaktiv, jedoch nicht paralytisch und stellen Bewegung und Nahrungsaufnahme ein. Kurz nachdem wildtypische Larven das L2-Stadium erreichen, sterben die Mutanten ab. Der Phänotyp wei'st starke Ähnlichkeit zu Synaptotagmin I-Mutanten und zu alpha-Adaptin-Mutanten auf. Das Transkriptionsmuster ähnelt dem von alpha-Adaptin und AP50. Alle diese Gene spielen in der Endozytose eine Rolle

Isolation and identification of molecular partners of the proteins encoded by the Drosophila tumor suppressor gene lethal(2)tumorous imaginal discs

Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die funktionelle Bedeutung des Drosophila melanogaster tumor suppressor Gens lethal(2)tumorous imaginal discs (l(2)tid) durch die Identifikation von molekularen Partnern der vom Gen kodierten Proteine zu etablieren. Mit dem Screening einer Expressionsbibliothek mittels des Hefe-Di-Hybrid-Systems wurde das Protein Patched (Ptc) als ein neues Tid-bindendes Protein identifiziert. Ptc ist ein Zentralregulator der Hedhehog-Signalkette. Diese ist in der Entwicklung konserviert und in manchen humanen Krebsarten verwickelt. Die Tid/Ptc-Interaktion wurde mittels unabhängigen biochemischen Methoden wie dem GST-pulldown-Test oder der Immunopräzipitation überprüft. Außerdem ergaben funktionelle Studien in tumorosen Imaginalscheiben einen möglichen inhibitorischen Effekt von Tid über die Hh Signaltransduktion.Im letzten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die Interaktion zwischen Tid und dem E-APC-Protein (Adenomatous polyposis coli) bewiesen. Polakis und seine Gruppe zeigten durch Studien mit dem Hefe-Di-Hybrid-System und in vitro, dass das hTid mit dem APC-Protein interagiert. Um dies auch auf Drosophila-Ebene zu überprüfen, wurden Immunopräzipitation-Studien mit den Drosophila-Gegenstücken durchgeführt. Diese Studien zeigen zum ersten Mal eine direkte Interaktion beider Proteine in vivo.

Investigations on formation and specification of neural precursor cells in the central nervous system of the Drosophila melanogaster embryo

Investigations on formation and specification of neural precursor cells in the central nervous system of the Drosophila melanogaster embryoSpecification of a unique cell fate during development of a multicellular organism often is a function of its position. The Drosophila central nervous system (CNS) provides an ideal system to dissect signalling events during development that lead to cell specific patterns. Different cell types in the CNS are formed from a relatively few precursor cells, the neuroblasts (NBs), which delaminate from the neurogenic region of the ectoderm. The delamination occurs in five waves, S1-S5, finally leading to a subepidermal layer consisting of about 30 NBs, each with a unique identity, arranged in a stereotyped spatial pattern in each hemisegment. This information depends on several factors such as the concentrations of various morphogens, cell-cell interactions and long range signals present at the position and time of its birth. The early NBs, delaminating during S1 and S2, form an orthogonal array of four rows (2/3,4,5,6/7) and three columns (medial, intermediate, and lateral) . However, the three column and four row-arrangement pattern is only transitory during early stages of neurogenesis which is obscured by late emerging (S3-S5) neuroblasts (Doe and Goodman, 1985; Goodman and Doe, 1993). Therefore the aim of my study has been to identify novel genes which play a role in the formation or specification of late delaminating NBs.In this study the gene anterior open or yan was picked up in a genetic screen to identity novel and yet unidentified genes in the process of late neuroblast formation and specification. I have shown that the gene yan is responsible for maintaining the cells of the neuroectoderm in an undifferentiated state by interfering with the Notch signalling mechanism. Secondly, I have studied the function and interactions of segment polarity genes within a certain neuroectodermal region, namely the engrailed (en) expressing domain, with regard to the fate specification of a set of late neuroblasts, namely NB 6-4 and NB 7-3. I have dissected the regulatory interaction of the segment polarity genes wingless (wg), hedgehog (hh) and engrailed (en) as they maintain each other’s expression to show that En is a prerequisite for neurogenesis and show that the interplay of the segmentation genes naked (nkd) and gooseberry (gsb), both of which are targets of wingless (wg) activity, leads to differential commitment of NB 7-3 and NB 6-4 cell fate. I have shown that in the absence of either nkd or gsb one NB fate is replaced by the other. However, the temporal sequence of delamination is maintained, suggesting that formation and specification of these two NBs are under independent control.

The study of a novel zinc finger gene cluster TZF and a genomic region flanking the histone H 4 replacement gene H 4 r of Drosophila melanogaster

Part I : A zinc finger gene Tzf1 was cloned in the earlier work of the lab by screening a ë-DASH2 cDNA expression library with an anti-Rat SC antibody. A ë-DASH2 genomic DNA library and cosmid lawrist 4 genomic DNA library were screened with the cDNA fragment of Tzf1 to determine the genomic organization of Tzf1. Another putative zinc finger gene Tzf2 was found about 700 bp upstream of Tzf1.RACE experiment was carried out for both genes to establish the whole length cDNA. The cDNA sequences of Tzf and Tzf2 were used to search the Flybase (Version Nov, 2000). They correspond to two genes found in the Flybase, CG4413 and CG4936. The CG4413 transcript seems to be a splicing variant of Tzf transcripts. Another two zinc finger genes Tzf3 and Tzf4 were discovered in silico. They are located 300 bp away from Tzf and Tzf2, and a non-tandem cluster was formed by the four genes. All four genes encode proteins with a very similar modular structure, since they all have five C2H2 type zinc fingers at their c-terminal ends. This is the most compact zinc finger protein gene cluster found in Drosophila melanogaster.Part II: 34,056 bp insert of the cosmid 19G11

Lokalisation und Verteilung von Synapsen auf identifizierten Zellen im Zentralen Nervensystem von Drosophila melanogaster

Wir präsentieren zwei Techniken, mit deren Hilfe es erstmals möglich ist, zentralnervöse Synapsen im Zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS) von Drosophila melanogaster reproduzierbar darzustellen und experimentellen Methoden zugänglich zu machen. Die erste Technik beruht auf dem UAS/Gal4-System und ermöglicht die Expression markierter synaptischer Proteine in bekannten reproduzierbaren Neuronen. Die zweite Technik beruht auf der Einzel-Zelltransplantation und erlaubt die reproduzierbare Visualisierung von Synapsen in allen neuralen Zell-Linien des Drosophila Bauchmark.Mit Hilfe dieser Techniken konnte gezeigt werden, dass Neuriten im Bauchmark von Drosophila mindestens drei unterschiedliche Kompartimente aufweisen: 1. Primäre, häufig transversal verlaufende Neurite ohne Output-Synapsen, 2. Seitenneurite von vermutlich rein postsynaptischer Natur und 3. Seitenneurite, die präsynaptisch spezialisierte Regionen aufweisen. Des Weiteren konnten wir nachweisen, dass die Seitenneurite von Motroneuronen im ZNS vermutlich rein postsynaptisch sind. Weitere Beobachtungen veranlassen uns zu der Hypothese, dass motorneuronale Seitenneurite in Drosophila homolog oder analog zu Dendriten in Vertebraten sein könnten.Mit Hilfe der Transplantationstechnik untersuchten wir weiterhin die Funktion des Gens kakapo im ZNS. Obwohl kakapo für die Entwicklung von Synapsen an der Neuromuskulären Verbindung wichtig ist, konnten wir im ZNS keinen Phänotyp feststellen. Dies legt nahe, dass zwischen der Entwicklung von periphären und zentralnervösen Synapsen klare Unterschiede bestehen.