Differences in primary sites of infection between zoonotic and human tuberculosis: results from a worldwide systematic review.

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the most devastating infectious diseases worldwide. Whilst global burden estimates for M. tuberculosis infection (MtTB) are well established, accurate data on the contribution of zoonotic TB (zTB) caused by M. bovis or M. caprae to human TB are scarce. The association of M. bovis infection with extrapulmonary tuberculosis has been suggested repeatedly, though there is little scientific evidence available to support this relationship. The present study aimed to determine globally the occurrence of extrapulmonary TB and the primary site (i.e. primary body location affected) of zTB in comparison with MtTB, based on previously published reports. A systematic literature review was conducted in 32 different bibliographic databases, selecting reports on zTB written in English, French, German, Spanish or Portuguese. Data from 27 reports from Africa, America, Europe and the Western Pacific Region were extracted for analyses. Low income countries, in Africa and South-East Asia, were highly underrepresented in the dataset. The median proportion of extrapulmonary TB cases was significantly increased among zTB in comparison with data from registries of Europe and USA, reporting mainly MtTB cases (47% versus 22% in Europe, 73% versus 30% in the USA). These findings were confirmed by analyses of eight studies reporting on the proportions of extrapulmonary TB in comparable populations of zTB and MtTB cases (median 63% versus 22%). Also, disparities of primary sites of extrapulmonary TB between zTB and MtTB were detected. Our findings, based on global data, confirm the widely suggested association between zTB and extrapulmonary disease. Different disability weights for zTB and MtTB should be considered and we recommend separate burden estimates for the two diseases.

[Mastitis management in Swiss dairy farms with udder health problems]

The objective of this study was to describe the udder health management in Swiss dairy herds with udder health problems. One hundred dairy herds with a yield-corrected somatic cell count of 200'000 to 300'000 cells/ml during 2010 were selected. Data concerning farm structure, housing system, milking technique, milking procedures, dry-cow and mastitis management were collected during farm visits between September and December 2011. In addition, quarter milk samples were collected for bacteriological culturing from cows with a composite somatic cell count ≥ 150'000 cells/ml. The highest quarter level prevalence was 12.3 % for C. bovis. Eighty-two percent of the pipeline milking machines in tie-stalls and 88 % of the milking parlours fulfilled the criteria for the vacuum drop, and only 74 % of the pipeline milking machines met the criteria of the 10-l-water test. Eighty-five percent of the farms changed their milk liners too late. The correct order of teat preparation before cluster attachment was carried out by 37 % of the farmers only. With these results, Swiss dairy farmers and herd health veterinarians can be directed to common mistakes in mastitis management. The data will be used for future information campaigns to improve udder health in Swiss dairy farms.

Bovine Tuberculosis Risk Factors for British Herds Before and After the 2001 Foot-and-Mouth Epidemic: What have we Learned from the TB99 and CCS2005 Studies?

Over the last couple of decades, the UK experienced a substantial increase in the incidence and geographical spread of bovine tuberculosis (TB), in particular since the epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in 2001. The initiation of the Randomized Badger Culling Trial (RBCT) in 1998 in south-west England provided an opportunity for an in-depth collection of questionnaire data (covering farming practices, herd management and husbandry, trading and wildlife activity) from herds having experienced a TB breakdown between 1998 and early 2006 and randomly selected control herds, both within and outside the RBCT (the so-called TB99 and CCS2005 case-control studies). The data collated were split into four separate and comparable substudies related to either the pre-FMD or post-FMD period, which are brought together and discussed here for the first time. The findings suggest that the risk factors associated with TB breakdowns may have changed. Higher Mycobacterium bovis prevalence in badgers following the FMD epidemic may have contributed to the identification of the presence of badgers on a farm as a prominent TB risk factor only post-FMD. The strong emergence of contact/trading TB risk factors post-FMD suggests that the purchasing and movement of cattle, which took place to restock FMD-affected areas after 2001, may have exacerbated the TB problem. Post-FMD analyses also highlighted the potential impact of environmental factors on TB risk. Although no unique and universal solution exists to reduce the transmission of TB to and among British cattle, there is an evidence to suggest that applying the broad principles of biosecurity on farms reduces the risk of infection. However, with trading remaining as an important route of local and long-distance TB transmission, improvements in the detection of infected animals during pre- and post-movement testing should further reduce the geographical spread of the disease.

Molecular detection of Bartonella spp. in deer ked pupae, adult keds and moose blood in Finland

SUMMARY The deer ked (Lipoptena cervi) is a haematophagous ectoparasite of cervids that harbours haemotrophic Bartonella. A prerequisite for the vector competence of the deer ked is the vertical transmission of the pathogen from the mother to its progeny and transstadial transmission from pupa to winged adult. We screened 1154 pupae and 59 pools of winged adult deer keds from different areas in Finland for Bartonella DNA using PCR. Altogether 13 pupa samples and one winged adult deer ked were positive for the presence of Bartonella DNA. The amplified sequences were closely related to either B. schoenbuchensis or B. bovis. The same lineages were identified in eight blood samples collected from free-ranging moose. This is the first demonstration of Bartonella spp. DNA in a winged adult deer ked and, thus, evidence for potential transstadial transmission of Bartonella spp. in the species.

Strategic use of serology for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis after intradermal skin testing

Diagnostic tests based on cell-mediated immunity are used in programmes for eradication of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis). Serological assays could be applied as ancillary methods to detect infected animals. Our objective was to evaluate two serological techniques: M. bovis Ab Test (IDEXX, USA) and Enferplex™ TB assay (Enfer, Ireland) in animals tested simultaneously with the single and comparative intradermal tests and the interferon-gamma assay. This work was performed at two stages. First, a preliminary panel of samples collected prior to intradermal tests from tuberculosis-free (n=60) and M. bovis-infected herds (n=78) was assayed, obtaining high specificity: 100% (M. bovis Ab Test) and 98.3% (Enferplex TB assay) but low sensitivity (detection of M. bovis infected animals): 23.9% (M. bovis Ab Test) and 32.6% (Enferplex TB assay). Subsequently, the use of serological techniques was further studied in two herds with M. bovis infection (n=77) using samples collected prior to, and 72 h and 15 days after PPD inoculation. The highest level of detection of infected animals for serology was achieved at 15 days post-intradermal tests taking advantage of the anamnestic effect: 70.4% and 85.2% in herd A, and 66.7% and 83.3% in herd B, using M. bovis Ab Test and Enferplex TB assay, respectively. Quantitative results (average values obtained with M. bovis Ab Test ELISA and degree of positivity obtained with Enferplex TB assay) were higher in animals showing lesions compatible with tuberculosis. No significant differences were observed in the number of confirmed infected animals detected with either serological technique.

Direct visualization of the outer membrane of mycobacteria and corynebacteria in their native state.

The cell envelope of mycobacteria, which include the causative agents of tuberculosis and leprosy, is crucial for their success as pathogens. Despite a continued strong emphasis on identifying the multiple chemical components of this envelope, it has proven difficult to combine its components into a comprehensive structural model, primarily because the available ultrastructural data rely on conventional electron microscopy embedding and sectioning, which are known to induce artifacts. The existence of an outer membrane bilayer has long been postulated but has never been directly observed by electron microscopy of ultrathin sections. Here we have used cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS) to perform a detailed ultrastructural analysis of three species belonging to the Corynebacterineae suborder, namely, Mycobacterium bovis BCG, Mycobacterium smegmatis, and Corynebacterium glutamicum, in their native state. We provide new information that accurately describes the different layers of the mycobacterial cell envelope and challenges current models of the organization of its components. We show a direct visualization of an outer membrane, analogous to that found in gram-negative bacteria, in the three bacterial species examined. Furthermore, we demonstrate that mycolic acids, the hallmark of mycobacteria and related genera, are essential for the formation of this outer membrane. In addition, a granular layer and a low-density zone typifying the periplasmic space of gram-positive bacteria are apparent in CEMOVIS images of mycobacteria and corynebacteria. Based on our observations, a model of the organization of the lipids in the outer membrane is proposed. The architecture we describe should serve as a reference for future studies to relate the structure of the mycobacterial cell envelope to its function.

Lactoferrin: An adjuvant to enhance the efficacy of the BCG vaccine

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), is a disease with world wide consequences, affecting nearly a third of the world's population. The established vaccine for TB; an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis Calmette Guerin (BCG), has existed virtually unchanged since 1921. Intensive research is focused on developing a TB vaccine that can surpass and improve the existing BCG vaccine. Lactoferrin, an iron binding protein found in mucosal secretions and granules of neutrophils was hypothesized to be an ideal adjuvant to enhance the efficacy of the BCG vaccine. Specifically, Lactoferrin enhanced the ratio of IL-12:IL-10 production from macrophages stimulated with LFS or infected with BCG, indicating the potential to affect T-cell development in vivo. Five different vaccination protocols were investigated for generation of host protective responses against MTB infection using Lactoferrin admixed to the BCG vaccine. Mice immunized and boosted at 2 weeks with BCG/Lactofefrin increased host protection against MTB infection by decreasing organ bacterial load and reducing lung histopathology. The observed postchallenge results paralleled with increasing production of IFN-γ, IL-2, TNF-α, and IL-12 from BCG stimulated splenocytes. In vitro studies examined possible mechanisms of Lactoferrin action on BCG infected macrophages and dendritic cells. Addition of Lactoferrin to BCG infected macrophages and dendritic cells increased stimulation of presensitized CD3+ and CD4+ T-cells. Analysis by fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS) revealed an increase in surface expression of MHC I and decreased ratio of CD80/86 from BCG infected macrophages cultured with Lactoferrin. In contrast, Lactoferrin decreased surface expression of MHC I, MHC II, CD80, CD86, and CD40, but increased CD 11c, from BCG infected dendritic cells, indicating involvement of adhesion molecules. Overall, these studies indicate that Lactoferrin is a useful and effective adjuvant to improve efficacy of the BCG vaccine by enhancing generation of mycobacterial antigen specific T-cell responses through promotion of antigen presentation and T-cell stimulation.^

Alojamiento de terneros

A lo largo de las próximas páginas se van a abordar una serie de aspectos relacionados con los alojamientos para terneros. Las posibilidades de diseño son diversas y en la elección de la solución m��s adecuada pesan un buen número de factores condicionantes que hay que considerar detenidamente. Quizá sean los terneros el grupo de animales de una explotación bovina al que se le ha prestado una menor atención, en razón, quizá, de no tratarse de una fase productiva, en el sentido monetario del término. Es evidente que terneros criados en ambientes poco favorables puede que no lleguen nunca a expresar todo su potencial genético, bien se trate de producción de leche o de producción de carne. Aún m��s, los datos recogidos en muchísimas granjas nos dicen que se mueren demasiados terneros, con las pérdidas económicas que ello supone. Una de las principales razones de los altos índices de mortalidad es el inadecuado alojamiento en el que se coloca a los terneros durante esta fase crítica que son sus 2 -3 primeros meses de vida. Estudiaremos, por tanto, las necesidades ambientales de estos animales así como las condiciones básicas que deben cumplir los locales donde se alojan. Para finalizar esta introducción, no podemos olvidar que los alojamientos, por sí solos, no garantizan el éxito de una explotación, sino que es fundamental garantizar cada uno de los dem��s pilares de la producción animal: alimentación, manejo, higiene, sanidad y calidad genética de los propios animales.

Calidad del forraje y del heno

Podríamos definir la calidad del forraje y/o del heno como “el potencial que éstos tienen de producir una respuesta deseada en el animal”. Dicho de otra forma, el grado en que cubre las necesidades del animal que lo consume. Se analizan pues, en este capítulo, aquellos factores que condicionan la calidad del forraje verde original así como los que determinan la calidad del heno que se obtiene y que no han sido expuestos en capítulos anteriores. Asimismo, y de forma previa, se citan algunos de los parámetros de calidad que van a condicionar la respuesta del ganado, tanto en lo que a su nivel de ingestión voluntaria se refiere como a la respuesta productiva que se obtiene, función, entre otras cosas, del valor nutritivo del heno ingerido.

El proceso de henificación

En este capítulo se describe el proceso de henificación y, por tanto, todos los pasos que llevan a que el forraje segado pierda la cantidad de agua suficiente para poder ser conservado con las menores pérdidas nutritivas posibles. Asimismo, se analizan las causas de las pérdidas de valor alimenticio que el forraje experimenta desde el estado verde original. Durante el proceso que conduce a la formación del heno se experimentan una serie de modificaciones en la composición química del forraje original, lo que conlleva cambios en el valor nutritivo y de la digestibilidad del mismo. Estas pérdidas, que son consecuencia del nivel de humedad del forraje en desecación, hacen necesario acelerar dicho proceso de secado. Por ello se comentan diversos m��todos para lograrlo como el acondicionado del forraje y la desecación química, m��todo éste poco utilizado.

Condiciones ambientales y bienestar. La ventilación

En este breve primer capítulo de la primera monografía sobre conservación de forrajes se quiere poner de manifiesto la gran importancia que en la actualidad tienen los forrajes conservados desde el punto de vista económico, así como desde el punto de vista del manejo de la alimentación del ganado. Asimismo, los forrajes juegan un importante papel en el mantenimiento del suelo agrícola, permitiendo una gran diversidad de rotaciones de cultivo. De alguna forma, el cul- tivo de forrajes contribuye notablemente a lo que se ha venido en denominar “agricultura sostenible”, al permitir conservar una buena estructura del suelo, mejorar la infiltración del agua, evitar la erosión y controlar las plagas de forma natural. No cabe duda que, al igual que todos los alimentos fibrosos que no pueden ser aprovechados directamente por el hombre, gracias a los forrajes cultivados transformamos una enorme cantidad de recursos vegetales en alimentos de origen animal, lo que evidencia la importancia de estos cultivos en la alimentación humana.

Condiciones ambientales y bienestar. La ventilación

Probablemente las condiciones ambientales sean una de las principales asignaturas pendientes en los alojamientos de vacuno de leche. La concurrencia en gran parte de nuestro país de inviernos fríos y veranos muy calurosos añaden una dificultad m��s a la ya compleja tarea de diseñar una ventilación correcta. Los cambios bruscos de tiempo tampoco ayudan. Conscientes de la dificultad de la tarea, hemos querido ofrecer en este capítulo unas sencillas recomendaciones y aportar algunas sugerencias al hilo de lo que se está haciendo en otros países con sistemas de producción similares al nuestro. De esta forma, resaltamos la importancia de evitar las corrientes de aire pero proporcionar una amplia superficie de entrada y de salida de aire. Para que ello pueda ser posible, incluso en invierno, sugerimos la instalación de cortavientos. Finalmente, queremos resaltar la necesidad de que la renovación de aire llegue a todos los rincones de los alojamientos sin que se presenten zonas ciegas, y de evitar una humedad relativa excesiva, motivo de estrés térmico, de patologías respiratorias y de deterioro acelerado de los edificios.

Comederos

El alimento sólido es un ingrediente básico en la producción de leche, de ahí que dediquemos un capítulo al diseño y al manejo de la zona de alimentación. El comedero debe permitir una distribución adecuada de la ración, proporcionar espacio suficiente a las vacas para que éstas puedan consumir la cantidad que necesitan, estar limpio y libre de residuos de comidas anteriores y ser fácil de limpiar. La ingestión de alimentos se ve afectada por una serie de factores ambientales y de manejo. Sobre los primeros (clima y entorno) no se puede actuar o resulta caro y difícil, pero sobre las segundas (diseño y dimensionamiento adecuado, espacio disponible, etc.) sí podemos influir. De esta forma, un comedero correctamente diseñado da lugar a un acercamiento del animal m��s frecuente, m��s duradero y a una mayor ingestión. Asimismo, evitará numerosas lesiones debidas a una presión excesiva de las vacas sobre él. También nos referiremos a su mantenimiento y limpieza, para lo que es esencial una buena elección de materiales.

Alojamientos y bienestar. Aspectos principales

El bienestar de los animales no se restringe a una alimentación y manejo adecuados, sino que empieza en el propio diseño y concepción de la explotación en su conjunto. Cuestiones como la orientación de los edificios, la disposición entre ellos, su emplazamiento en la parcela, etc., cobran gran relevancia cuando pensamos en las patologías que se derivan de una mala calidad del aire por una falta de renovación del mismo. Debemos pensar también en el comportamiento natural de las vacas a la hora de diseñar el interior de los alojamientos y evitar soluciones que provocan malestar, incomodidad o lesiones al animal y que, en muchas ocasiones, son difíciles y/o costosas de corregir. En modelos intensivos de producción de leche, el suelo habitual de hormigón se ha convertido en una de las principales causas de problemas podales de las vacas y en origen de no pocos accidentes. Conocer cómo debe ser el suelo sobre el que caminan los animales es un asunto vital para el bienestar económico de la explotación.