The Impact of Western Social Workers in Romania - a Fine Line between Empowerment and Disempowerment

Ideally the social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance their well-being (IFSW 2004). The social work practice, however, often proves to be different. Social workers are always in the danger to make decisions for their clients or define problems according to their own interpretation and world view. In quite a number of cases, the consequence of such a social work practice is that the clients feel disempowered rather than empowered. This dilemma is multiplying when western social workers get involved in developing countries. The potential that intervention, with the intention to empower and liberate the people, turns into disempowerment is tremendously higher because of the differences in tradition, culture and society, on the one side and the power imbalance between the ‘West’ and the ‘Rest’ on the other side. Especially in developing countries, where the vast majority of people live in poverty, many Western social workers come with a lot of sympathy and the idea to help the poor and to change the world. An example is Romania. After the collapse of communism in 1989, Romania was an economically, politically and socially devastated country. The pictures of the orphanages shocked the western world. As a result many Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), churches and individuals were bringing humanitarian goods to Romania in order to alleviate the misery of the Romanian people and especially the children. Since then, important changes in all areas of life have occurred, mostly with foreign financial aid and support. At the political level, democratic institutions were established, a liberal market economy was launched and laws were adapted to western standards regarding the accession into the European Union and the NATO. The western world has left its marks also at the grassroots level in form of NGOs or social service agencies established through western grants and individuals. Above and beyond, the presence of western goods and investment in Romania is omnipresent. This reflects a newly-gained freedom and prosperity - Romania profits certainly from these changes. But this is only one side of the medal, as the effect of westernisation contradicts with the Romanian reality and overruns many deep-rooted traditions, thus the majority of people. Moreover, only a small percentage of the population has access to this western world. Western concepts, procedures or interpretations are often highly differing from the Romanian tradition, history and culture. Nevertheless, western ideas seem to dominate the transition in many areas of daily life in Romania. A closer look reveals that many changes take place due to pressure of western governments and are conditioned to financial support. The dialectic relationship between the need for foreign aid and the implementation becomes very obvious in Romania and often leads, despite the substantial benefits, to unpredictable and rather negative side-effects, at a political, social, cultural, ecological and/or economic level. This reality is a huge dilemma for all those involved, as there is a fine line between empowering and disempowering action. It is beyond the scope of this journal to discuss the dilemma posed by Western involvement at all levels; therefore this article focuses on the impact of Western social workers in Romania. The first part consists of a short introduction to social work in Romania, followed by the discussion about the dilemma posed by the structure of project of international social work and the organisation of private social service agencies. Thirdly the experiences of Romanian staff with Western social workers are presented and then discussed with regard to turning disempowering tendencies of Western social workers into empowerment.

Transition and Justice: An Introduction

Since the end of the Cold War, political new beginnings have increasingly been linked to questions of transitional justice. The contributions to this collection examine a series of cases from across the African continent where peaceful ‘new beginnings’ have been declared after periods of violence and where transitional justice institutions played a role in defining justice and the new socio-political order. Three issues seem to be crucial to the understanding of transitional justice in the context of wider social debates on justice and political change: the problem of ‘new beginnings’, of finding a foundation for that which explicitly breaks with the past; the discrepancies between lofty promises and the messy realities of transitional justice in action; and the dialectic between logics of the exception and the ordinary, employed to legitimize or resist transitional justice mechanisms. These are the particular focus of this Introduction.

Socrates on the Moral Mischief of Misology

In Plato’s dialogues, the Phaedo, Laches, and Republic, Socrates warns his interlocutors about the dangers of misology. Misology is explained by analogy with misanthropy, not as the hatred of other human beings, but as the hatred of the logos or reasonable discourse. According to Socrates, misology arises when a person alternates between believing an argument to be correct, and then refuting it as false. If Socrates is right, then misanthropy is sometimes instilled when a person goes from trusting people to learning that others sometimes betray our reliance and expectations, and finally not to placing any confidence whatsoever in other people, or, in the case of misology, in the correctness or trustworthiness of arguments. A cynical indifference to the soundness of arguments generally is sometimes associated with Socrates’ polemical targets, the Sophists, at least as Plato represents Socrates’ reaction to these itinerant teachers of rhetoric, public speaking and the fashioning of arguments suitable to any occasion. Socrates’ injunctions against misology are largely moral, pronouncing it ‘shameful’ and ‘very wicked’, and something that without further justification we must ‘guard against’, maintaining that we will be less excellent persons if we come to despise argument as lacking the potential of leading to the truth. I examine Socrates’ moral objections to misology which I show to be inconclusive. I consider instead the problem of logical coherence in the motivations supposedly underlying misology, and conclude that misology as Socrates intends the concept is an emotional reaction to argumentation on the part of persons who have not acquired the logical dialectical skills or will to sort out good from bad arguments. We cannot dismiss argument as directed toward the truth unless we have a strong reason for doing so, and any such argument must itself presuppose that at least some reasoning can be justified in discovering and justifying belief in interesting truths. The relevant passages from Socrates’ discussion of the soul’s immortality in the Phaedo are discussed in detail, and set in scholarly background against Socrates’ philosophy more generally, as represented by Plato’s dialogues. I conclude by offering a suggestive list of practical remedies to avoid the alienation from argument in dialectic with which Socrates is concerned.

Collingwood on religious atonement

R. G. Collingwood’s philosophical analysis of religious atonement as a dialectical process of mortal repentance and divine forgiveness is explained and criticized. Collingwood’s Christian concept of atonement, in which Christ TeX the Atonement (and also TeX the Incarnation), is subject in turn to another kind of dialectic, in which some of Collingwood’s leading ideas are first surveyed, and then tested against objections in a philosophical evaluation of their virtues and defects, strengths and weaknesses. Collingwood’s efforts to synthesize objective and subjective aspects of atonement, and his proposal to solve the soteriological problem as to why God becomes flesh, as a dogma of some Christian belief systems, is finally exposed in adversarial exposition as inadequately supported by one of his main arguments, designated here as Collingwood’s Dilemma. The dilemma is that sin is either forgiven or unforgiven by God. If God forgives sin, then God’s justice is lax, whereas if God does not forgive sin, then, also contrary to divine nature, God lacks perfect loving compassion. The dilemma is supposed to drive philosophy toward a concept of atonement in which the sacrifice of Christ is required in order to absolve God of the lax judgment objection. God forgives sin only when the price of sin is paid, in this case, by the suffering and crucifixion of God’s avatar. The dilemma can be resolved in another way than Collingwood considers, undermining his motivation for synthesizing objective and subjective facets of the concept of atonement for the sake of avoiding inconsistency. Collingwood is philosophically important because he asks all the right questions about religious atonement, and points toward reasonable answers, even if he does not always deliver original philosophically satisfactory solutions.

Trading Values in Early Modern Antwerp

In his Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi of 1567, the Italian merchant and humanist Ludovico Guicciardini described Antwerp as the warehouse of the world where all kinds of commodities were traded and displayed. Early modern Antwerp’s pre-eminent position depended upon links between material trade and exchange and the circulation of information, knowledge and beliefs. In this multidisciplinary volume of the NKJ, articles by leading scholars in the fields of art and material culture, literature and history explore ways in which value was propagated in the city from its so-called golden age, before the Revolt of the Netherlands, far into the seventeenth century.

Otium et negotium. Reading processes and their cultural backgrounds in early Italian and German humanism

Reading and reading habits have radically changed in the digital age. Readers are no longer physically bound to textual objects and libraries, they deal with texts by copying, altering, and annotating them, and they mix established textual forms with other semiotic systems such as pictograms, icons and images. These circumstances also provoke a renewed research interest in the history of reading. In this talk, I will concentrate on reading processes as to how they were enacted and practised in early Italian and German humanism. I will start with some paradigmatic scenes described in Petrarch’s letters (among others the famous visit of the Mont Ventoux, where Petrarch, after having enjoyed a spectacular panorama, withdraws into the contemplative reading of St-Augustine). The transmission of Petrarch’s writings in humanist circles of Southern Germany (e.g. with the Schedel and Gossembrot families in Nurnberg, Augsburg and Strasburg) will then lead to specific reading practices documented in manuscripts that once belonged to coherent libraries and are nowadays spread all over Europe. In the case of the former tradesman and mayor Sigismund Gossembrot, complex habits of textual annotating and cross-referencing can be observed. The dichotomy of the Latin terms otium (‘rest’ and ‘leisure’) and negotium (‘activity’, but also ‘practice’, ‘negotiation’, ‘circulation of social energy’ in the sense of New Historicism) will be used as an ideal-type outline to describe the occurring processes of reading.

Otium et negotium. Reading processes and their cultural backgrounds in early Italian and German humanism

Reading and reading habits have radically changed in the digital age. Readers are no longer physically bound to textual objects and libraries, they deal with texts by copying, altering, and annotating them, and they mix established textual forms with other semiotic systems such as pictograms, icons and images. These circumstances also provoke a renewed research interest in the history of reading. In this talk, I will concentrate on reading processes as to how they were enacted and practised in early Italian and German humanism. I will start with some paradigmatic scenes described in Petrarch’s letters (among others the famous visit of the Mont Ventoux, where Petrarch, after having enjoyed a spectacular panorama, withdraws into the contemplative reading of St-Augustine). The transmission of Petrarch’s writings in humanist circles of Southern Germany (e.g. with the Schedel and Gossembrot families in Nurnberg, Augsburg and Strasburg) will then lead to specific reading practices documented in manuscripts that once belonged to coherent libraries and are nowadays spread all over Europe. In the case of the former tradesman and mayor Sigismund Gossembrot, complex habits of textual annotating and cross-referencing can be observed. The dichotomy of the Latin terms otium (‘rest’ and ‘leisure’) and negotium (‘activity’, but also ‘practice’, ‘negotiation’, ‘circulation of social energy’ in the sense of New Historicism) will be used as an ideal-type outline to describe the occurring processes of reading.

Na 1 Nachlass Max Horkheimer, 103 - Korrespondenzen u.a. mit Maria Pattermann und Franz Neumann (p. III 11, 1-335)

1 Drucksache der Rechtsanwaltskanzlei Pacht, Tannenbaum & Ross, 1951; 2 Briefe zwischen der Pädagogischen Hauptstelle der Gewerkschaft Erziehung u. Wissenschaft und Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief vom Pädagogischen Verlag B. Schulz an Max Horkheimer, 1950; 3 Briefe zwischen dem Professor Erwin Walter Palm und Max Horkheimer, 1957-1958; 2 Briefe zwischen Helena Brans und Max Horkheimer, 1953; 2 Briefe vom Park-Hotel Frankfurt an Max Horkheimer,1957-1958; 1 Brief von Enno Patalas an Max Horkheimer, 1 Brief von Theodor W. Adorno an Enno Patalas, 1956; 2 Briefe zwischen Dieter Pätzold und Max Horkheimer, 1952; 8 Briefe zwischen Maria Pattermann und Max Horkheimer, 1952-1958; 2 Briefe zwischen F. Perrot und Max Horkheimer, 1953; 2 Briefe zwischen der Buchhandlung Werner Peter und Max Horkheimer, 1954; 3 Briefe zwischen Alfred Peters und Max Horkheimer, 1952-1953; 1 Zeugnis von dem Studenten Joachim Peter, 1953; 1 Brief von Max Horkheimer an F.H. Peterson, 1950; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Studenten Klaus Peuker und Max Horkheimer, 1951; 1 Brief des Chefredakteuren Karl Pfannkuch an Max Horkheimer, 1955; 1 Brief von Dr. Karl Pfauter an Max Horkheimer, 1952; Briefwechsel zwischen der Studentin Renate Pflaume und Max Horkheimer, 1952; Briefwechsel zwischen Joseph B. Phillips und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 1 Brief von Professor Josef Pieper an Max Horkheimer , 1951; 1 Brief von Ehrenfried Pihan an Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief von F. G. Pincus an Theodor W. Adorno, 1954; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor Koppel S. Pinson und Max Horkheimer, 1956; 2 Briefe zwischen dem Professor Kurt Pinthus und Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief an Dr. Knut Pipping von Max Horkheimer, 1950; 2 Briefe zwischen Erwin Piscator und Max Horkheimer, 1954; Briefwechsel zwischen der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften und Max Horkheimer, 1953-1955; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor Richard Plant und Max Horkheimer, 1953 und 2 Briefe zwischen Professor Richard Plant und Margarete Feretty-Füredi, 1953; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor Johann Plenge und Max Horkheimer, 1951-1952; Briefwechsel zwischen Barbara Pleyer und Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief von Erich Paul Pechmann an Max Horkheimer, 1952; Briefwechsel zwischen Dr. Gerhard Poetzsch und an Max Horkheimer, 1958; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Committee on Science & Freedom und Max Horkheimer, 1955-1956; 1 Brief an den Professor Rudolf Pohl von Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief von der Zeitschrift "Die politsche Meinung" an Max Horkheimer, 1956; 1 Brief von Max F. Pollack an Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief von dem Professor Wilhelm Polligkeit an Max Horkheimer, 1951; 1 Brief von dem Poli-Verlag an Max Horkheimer, 1950; Briefwechsel zwischen Alexej Poremsky und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 1 Brief von Rita Post an Max Horkheimer, 1952; 1 Brief von Max Potzin an Max Horkheimer, 1951; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Oberstudienrat Max Preitz und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 1 Brief von dem Professor Wolfgang Preiser an Max Horkheimer, 1952; 1 Gutachten und Beilagen von Dr. Karl A. Preuschen an Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel und Beilagen zwischen dem Direktor des The Commonwealth Fund E. K. Wickman und Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen Klaus H. Pringsheim und Max Horkheimer, 1952-1958; 1 Brief von Curt Freiherr von Preuschen an Max Horkheimer, 1953; Briefwechsel zwischen Rüdiger Proske und Max Horkheimer, 1951; Briefwechsel und Beilagen zwischen Dr. Harry Pross und Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief von dem Professor Franz Neumann an Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief an G. H. Graber von Max Horkheimer, 1953; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Quaker Service und Max Horkheimer, 1950; Briefwechsel zwischn Günther Quandt und Max Horkheimer, 1953 und 2 Todesanzeigen, 1955; 1 Brief an den Querido-Verlag von Max Horkheimer, 1951; Briefwechsel zwischen Emil Querinjean und Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen John Raatjes und Max Horkheimer, 1956; Briefwechsel zwischen der Zeitschrift the humanist radical und Max Horkheimer, 1957; Briefwechsel zwischen Sitangghu Chatterji und Max Horkheimer, 1957; 1 Brief von der Radio Corporation of America an Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief und Beilagen vom Radiodiffusion et Télévision Francaises an Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Österreichischer Rundfunk Radio Wien und Max Horkheimer, 1956; 1 Brief von dem Professor Boris Rajewsky an Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief an Else Rang von Max Horkheimer, 1950; Briefwechsel zwischen Heinz Raspini und Max Horkheimer, 1956; 1 Drucksache zwischen Hanna Becker vom Rath und Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Telegramm von dem Professor Roland Rather an Max Horkheimer und 2 Briefe von Max Horkheimer an Roland Rather, 1957; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor L. J. Rather und Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen Phillip Roth und Max Horkheimer, 1958; Briefwechsel zwischen Sibnarayan Ray und Max Horkheimer, 1956-1957; Briefwechsel mit Beilagen zwischen dem Rationalisierungs-Kuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft und Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Aktennotiz von dem Jornalisten Rasten der dänischen Zeitung Politiken, 1953; Briefwechsel zwischen Wolfgang M. Rauch und Max Horkheimer, 1956; 1 Anzeige der Ingeborg Rauter, 1953; 1 Brief von dem Hotel Reber au lac an Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen Alice Reboly und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 3 Briefe an die Regensburger Zeitungen von Max Horkheimer, 1956; 1 Brief an den Professor Klaus Reich von Max Horkheimer, 1950; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Reinhardt, Ernst, Verlag und Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief von dem Apotheker Hermann Reitberger an Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen Dr. Paul Reiwald und Max Horkheimer, 1950; 1 Brief von dem Journalist Godo Remszhardt an Max Horkheimer, 1954; Briefwechsel zwischen Dr. Irmgard Rexroth-Kern und Max Horkheimer, 1952; Briefwechsel zwischen Hans Rheinbay und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 1 Brief von der Universität Bonn an Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief an den Rheinischer Merkur von Max Horkheimer, 1951; 1 Brief an die Rheinische Post von Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief an Hans Richter von Max Horkheimer, 1954; Briefwechsel zwischen Dr. Hermann Riefstahl und Max Horkheimer, 1957; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor Svend Riemer und Max Horkheimer, 1957; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Ring-Verlag und Max Horkheimer, 1957; Briefwechsel zwischen Werner Rings und Max Horkheimer, 1954; Briefwechsel zwischen Martha Ritter-Raabe und Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen Otto-Heinz Rocholl und Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief von Hilde Rodemann an Max Horkheimer, 1952; 1 Brief von Edouard Roditi an Max Horkheimer, 1951 und 1 Brief von Theodor W. Adorno an Edouard Roditi, 1951; Briefwechsel zwischen der Zeitschrift Studenten-Kurier und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 1 Brief von Karl Roeloffs an Max Horkheimer, 1953; Briefwechsel zwischen der Kunsthistorikerin Hanna Rhode und Max Horkheimer, 1950-1951; 1 Brief an Dr. Anna Ronge von Max Horkheimer, 1954; 2 Brief an Kathe Romney von Max Horkheimer, 1952-1955; Briefwechsel zwischen Dr. Paul Rompel und Max Horkheimer, 1952; 1 Brief an den Zahnartz Dr. Ingo Ropper von Max Horkheimer, 1953; Briefwechsel zwischen Ilse Wallis Ross und Max Horkheimer, 1955-1956; 1 Brief von dem Professor Hans W. Rosenhaupt an Max Horkheimer, 1952; 1 Brief von Rosenthal an Max Horkheimer, 1958; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Generalstaatsanwalt und Staatssekretär Erich Rosenthal-Pelldram und Max Horkheimer, 1952-1956; Briefwechsel zwischen Lessing J. Rosenwald und Max Horkheimer, 1950; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Lieutenant Dr. Alan O. Ross und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 4 Briefe und Beilagen von Günther Roth an Max Horkheimer, 1953-1957; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor Wolfram Eberhardt und Max Horkheimer, 1955; 1 Brief an den Professor M. A. Stewart von Theodor W. Adorno, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor Rheinhard Bendix und Max Horkheimer, 1955; Briefwechsel zwischen der Studentin Valentine Rothe und Max Horkheimer, 1957; 1 Brief von dem Student Rudolf Rothrock an Max Horkheimer, 1953; 1 Brief von Guy Roustang an Max Horkheimer, ohne Jahr; 1 Brief von Heinz Maria Ledig-Rowohlt an Max Horkheimer, 1950; Briefwechsel zwischen Ellen Roy und Max Horkheimer, 1956; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Professor Paul Royen und Max Horkheimer, 1954; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Staatsminister August Rucker und Max Horkheimer, 1955-1957 1 Brief an den Staatsminister August Rucker von Leopold von Wiese, 1955; 1 Bericht von Walter Rüegg, 1953 und 2 Briefe von Max Horkheimer an den Professor Walter Rüegg, 1955; 3 Briefe an den Professor Alexander Rüstow von Max Horkheimer, 1953-1958; Briefwechsel zwischen Käthe von Ruckteschell und Max Horkheimer, 1951-1954; Briefwechsel zwischen dem Student Gerhard Rudolph und Max Horkheimer, 1954; 1 Brief von der Ruf und Echo, Arbeitsgemeischaft an Max Horkheimer, 1952; 3 Briefe an den Professor Jay Rumney von Max Horkheimer, 1952-1954; Briefwechsel zwischen Clarence R. Rungee und Max Horkheimer, 1951-1952;

Rodolfo Mondolfo : humanista de izquierda

El pensamiento de Rodolfo Mondolfo une la investigación historiográfico-filológica y la meditación práctica sobre la moral y la justicia, resuelta en términos socialistas. Esta unión entre planos distintos de su obra no ha sido suficientemente destacada. Su recepción argentina reporta esta dificultad en la comprensión de su legado, dada por la doble contrariedad que esa herencia representa: por un lado fue un filósofo italiano que vivió y enseñó en la Argentina, antes que un filósofo argentino. Por otro lado, Mondolfo no fue sólo un profesor investigador, sino un intelectual marxista obsesionado por la relación entre la teoría y una práctica revolucionaria de intención demorradical y nacionalista. Se esboza una semblanza de conjunto para mostrar su preocupación por elaborar una antropología filosófica voluntarista, tanto a la hora de configurar su imagen del mundo antiguo, como al momento de trazar las categorías atinentes a una ética socialista de la emancipación nacional.

Pedagogía cultural para una educación hacia el encuentro

La categoría de la diferencia ha sido desde siempre puesta en relación dialéctica con la categoría de la igualdad, como objetivo social a conseguir o hacia el cual tender. A pesar de los esfuerzos de los Estados y de las instituciones en esta dirección, se asiste a una continua marginación que golpea a algunos sectores de la población (inmigrantes, discapacitados, ancianos…). Por esto nos preguntamos: ¿es correcto, en el pensamiento que guía las investigaciones, las acciones educativas y sociales, contraponer diferencia e igualdad? ¿Existe alguna otra forma de interrogarnos sobre las diferencias? Escuchamos, en el trabajo cotidiano de los profesionales de la educación y de la salud que hay una urgencia: hace falta encontrar prácticas que conduzcan a vivir mejor, a hacer del Encuentro el centro del propio trabajo. Con esta contribución deseo poner sobre la mesa una de las diferencias que están en la base de nuestro ser en el mundo, la lengua madre, a partir de una experiencia concreta con las familias inmigrantes. El deseo de contribuir a la creación de un pensamiento de la mediación cultural que nos invite al encuentro con las diferencias, propias, y aquellas de los demás, es la piedra angular de este escrito.

Implicancias metodológicas de una perspectiva relacional e histórica

Este artículo sugiere que frente al abandono de líneas de investigación que aborden los fenómenos sociales en sus múltiples relaciones engarzando armónicamente trabajo de campo y producción teórica, resulta imperante revisar los planteos sobre la lógica de la investigación buscando referencias sobre el uso de sus principios en la implementación de diseños de investigación. Sostiene firmemente que los enfoques tradicionales, tanto de la metodología cuantitativa como cualitativa, presentan serias limitaciones si se pretende que la complejidad de los supuestos teóricos no sea drásticamente simplificada durante el trabajo de campo. Por último, propone una revalorización de la dialéctica en tanto lógica de la investigación y, tomando partido por una sociología reflexiva, intenta rescatar aquellos aspectos presentes en diversas propuestas que permiten cierta coherencia teórica y metodológica oponiéndose tanto al teoricismo (actitud intelectual que opone resistencia a lo empírico) como al empiricismo acrítico (tendencia que lleva a cultivar el método por sí mismo, y a separar la reflexión sobre el método de su utilización concreta en el trabajo científico).