U7 snRNAs induce correction of mutated dystrophin pre-mRNA by exon skipping.

Most cases of Duchenne muscular dystrophy are caused by dystrophin gene mutations that disrupt the mRNA reading frame. Artificial exclusion (skipping) of a single exon would often restore the reading frame, giving rise to a shorter, but still functional dystrophin protein. Here, we analyzed the ability of antisense U7 small nuclear (sn)RNA derivatives to alter dystrophin pre-mRNA splicing. As a proof of principle, we first targeted the splice sites flanking exon 23 of dystrophin pre-mRNA in the wild-type muscle cell line C2C12 and showed precise exon 23 skipping. The same strategy was then successfully adapted to dystrophic immortalized mdx muscle cells where exon-23-skipped dystrophin mRNA rescued dystrophin protein synthesis. Moreover, we observed a stimulation of antisense U7 snRNA expression by the murine muscle creatine kinase enhancer. These results demonstrate that alteration of dystrophin pre-mRNA splicing could correct dystrophin gene mutations by expression of specific U7 snRNA constructs.

Influence of muscle fiber orientation on water and metabolite relaxation times, magnetization transfer, and visibility in human skeletal muscle

PURPOSE To gain a deeper understanding of the influence of skeletal muscle fiber orientation on metabolite visibility, magnetization transfer from water, and water proton relaxation rates in (1) H MR spectra. METHODS Non-water-suppressed MR spectroscopy was performed in tibialis anterior muscle (TA) of 10 healthy adults, with the TA oriented either parallel or at the magic angle to the 3T field. Spectra were acquired with metabolite-cycled PRESS, and water inversion from 50 to 2510 ms before excitation. Water proton T2 relaxation was sampled with STEAM with echo times from 12 to 272 ms. RESULTS Apparent concentrations of total creatine (tCr), taurine, and trimethylammonium compounds were reduced by 29% to 67% when TA was parallel to B0 . Both tCr peak areas were strongly correlated to the methylene peak splitting. Magnetization transfer rates from water to tCr CH3 were not significantly different between orientations. Water T1 s were similar between orientations, but T2 s were statistically significantly shorter by 1 ms in the parallel orientation (P = 0.002). CONCLUSION Muscle metabolite visibilities in MR spectroscopy and water T2 times depend substantially on muscle fiber orientation relative to B0 . In contrast, magnetization transfer rates appear to depend on muscle composition, rather than fiber orientation. Magn Reson Med, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Mutation in the Monocarboxylate Transporter 12 Gene Affects Guanidinoacetate Excretion but Does Not Cause Glucosuria

A heterozygous mutation (c.643C>A; p.Q215X) in the monocarboxylate transporter 12-encoding gene MCT12 (also known as SLC16A12) that mediates creatine transport was recently identified as the cause of a syndrome with juvenile cataracts, microcornea, and glucosuria in a single family. Whereas the MCT12 mutation cosegregated with the eye phenotype, poor correlation with the glucosuria phenotype did not support a pathogenic role of the mutation in the kidney. Here, we examined MCT12 in the kidney and found that it resides on basolateral membranes of proximal tubules. Patients with MCT12 mutation exhibited reduced plasma levels and increased fractional excretion of guanidinoacetate, but normal creatine levels, suggesting that MCT12 may function as a guanidinoacetate transporter in vivo. However, functional studies in Xenopus oocytes revealed that MCT12 transports creatine but not its precursor, guanidinoacetate. Genetic analysis revealed a separate, undescribed heterozygous mutation (c.265G>A; p.A89T) in the sodium/glucose cotransporter 2-encoding gene SGLT2 (also known as SLC5A2) in the family that segregated with the renal glucosuria phenotype. When overexpressed in HEK293 cells, the mutant SGLT2 transporter did not efficiently translocate to the plasma membrane, and displayed greatly reduced transport activity. In summary, our data indicate that MCT12 functions as a basolateral exit pathway for creatine in the proximal tubule. Heterozygous mutation of MCT12 affects systemic levels and renal handling of guanidinoacetate, possibly through an indirect mechanism. Furthermore, our data reveal a digenic syndrome in the index family, with simultaneous MCT12 and SGLT2 mutation. Thus, glucosuria is not part of the MCT12 mutation syndrome.

Influence of two types of self-retaining retractors on multifidus muscle blood flow during dorsolateral thoracolumbar hemilaminectomy in dogs

OBJECTIVES To assess the influence of the use of Gelpi and Grevel retractors on multifidus muscle blood flow during hemilaminectomy, using a dorsolateral approach, for acute disc extrusion in dogs as measured by laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI). METHODS Blood flow in the multifidus muscles was measured intra-operatively using LSCI prior to insertion of the retractors, immediately after hemilaminectomy and removal of the retractors, and after 10 minutes of lavage of the surgical site. Plasma creatine kinase levels were measured preoperatively and 12-24 hours postoperatively. RESULTS Muscular blood flow was significantly decreased following retraction and remained lower than initial values 10 minutes after lavage in all dogs. The decrease in blood flow was significantly greater with Gelpi retractors (n = 8) than with Grevel retractors (n = 10). No significant relation was found between the duration of retraction and postoperative changes in creatine kinase levels or blood flow. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Findings in this study demonstrate a drop in blood flow within the multifidus muscles using the dorsolateral approach regardless of retractor type used. Gelpi retractors seem to have greater influence on muscular blood flow than Grevel retractors. Further studies are warranted to confirm this second finding.

Increased levels of choline metabolites are an early marker of docetaxel treatment response in BRCA1-mutated mouse mammary tumors: an assessment by ex vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

BACKGROUND Docetaxel is one of the most frequently used drugs to treat breast cancer. However, resistance or incomplete response to docetaxel is a major challenge. The aim of this study was to utilize MR metabolomics to identify potential biomarkers of docetaxel resistance in a mouse model for BRCA1-mutated breast cancer. METHODOLOGY High resolution magic angle spinning (HRMAS) (1)H MR spectroscopy was performed on tissue samples obtained from docetaxel-sensitive or -resistant BRCA1-mutated mammary tumors in mice. Measurements were performed on samples obtained before treatment and at 1-2, 3-5 and 6-7 days after a 25 mg/kg dose of docetaxel. The MR spectra were analyzed by multivariate analysis, followed by analysis of the signals of individual compounds by peak fitting and integration with normalization to the integral of the creatine signal and of all signals between 2.9 and 3.6 ppm. RESULTS The HRMAS spectra revealed significant metabolic differences between sensitive and resistant tissue samples. In particular choline metabolites were higher in resistant tumors by more than 50% with respect to creatine and by more than 30% with respect to all signals between 2.9 and 3.6 ppm. Shortly after treatment (1-2 days) the normalized choline metabolite levels were significantly increased by more than 30% in the sensitive group coinciding with the time of highest apoptotic activity induced by docetaxel. Thereafter, choline metabolites in these tumors returned towards pre-treatment levels. No change in choline compounds was observed in the resistant tumors over the whole time of investigation. CONCLUSIONS Relative tissue concentrations of choline compounds are higher in docetaxel resistant than in sensitive BRCA1-mutated mouse mammary tumors, but in the first days after docetaxel treatment only in the sensitive tumors an increase of these compounds is observed. Thus both pre- and post-treatment tissue levels of choline compounds have potential to predict response to docetaxel treatment.

Inhalation anesthesia of rats: influence of the fraction of inspired oxygen on limb ischemia/reperfusion injury

Inhalation anesthesia with isoflurane is a well-established and safe method used in small laboratory animals. In most cases oxygen is used as a carrier gas for isoflurane, but room air or mixtures of oxygen with air or nitrous oxide are also being used. Anesthesia is therefore administered using different fractions of inspired oxygen (FiO2), and this may have consequences for the outcome of experiments. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of FiO2 on rat hind limb ischemia/reperfusion injury and to refine the used inhalation anesthesia. Male Wistar rats were subjected to 3.5 h of ischemia and 2 h of reperfusion, and divided into three groups according to FiO2 in the O2/air/isoflurane anesthesia gas mixture: 40%, 60%, and 100% O2. Normal, healthy rats were used as controls. Muscle edema and creatine kinase MM, a marker for myocyte necrosis, were significantly increased with 40% FiO2 as compared with 100% FiO2 (P<0.05). Partial pressure of oxygen, oxygen saturation, and oxyhemoglobin were significantly higher in the 100% O2 group as compared with 40% O2. No significant differences were detected for other parameters, such as the oxidative stress markers malondialdehyde and superoxide dismutase. We conclude that a refined inhalation anesthesia setting using 40% FiO2, reflecting more or less the clinical situation, leads to a more severe and more physiologically relevant reperfusion injury than higher FiO2. Oxidative stress did not correlate with FiO2 and seemed to have no influence on reperfusion injury.

The characterization of mouse carboxypeptidase N small subunit gene structure and presence in developing embryos

Carboxypeptidase N (CPN) is a plasma zinc metalloprotease, which consists of two enzymatically active small subunits and two large subunits that protect the protein from degradation. CPN cleaves carboxy-terminal arginines and lysines from peptides found in the bloodstream such as complement anaphylatoxins, kinins, and creatine kinase MM. In this study, the mouse CPN small subunit (CPN1) coding region, gene structure, and chromosomal location were characterized and the expression of CPN1 was investigated in mouse embryos at different stages of development. The CPN1 gene, which was approximately 29 kb in length, contained nine exons and localized to mouse chromosome 19D2. The fifth and sixth exons of CPN1 encoded the amino acids necessary for substrate binding and catalytic activity. CPN1 RNA was expressed predominately in adult liver and contained a 1371 bp open reading frame encoding 457 amino acids. In the mouse embryo, CPN1 RNA was observed at 8.5 days post coitus (dpc), while its protein was detected at 10.5 dpc. In situ hybridization of the fetal liver detected CPN1 RNA in erythroid progenitor cells at 10.5, 13.5, and 16.5 dpc and in hepatocytes at 16.5 dpc. This was compared to the expression of the complement component C3, the parent molecule of complement anaphylatoxin C3a. Consistently throughout the experiments, CPN1 message and protein preceded the expression of C3. To obtain a better understanding of the biological significance of CPN1 in vivo, studies were initiated to produce a genetically engineered mouse in which the CPN1 gene was ablated. To facilitate this project a targeting vector was constructed by removing the functionally important fifth and sixth exons of the CPN1 gene. Collectively, these studies have: (1) provided important detailed information regarding the structure and organization of the murine CPN1 gene, (2) yielded insights into the developmental expression of mouse CPN1 in relationship to C3 expression, and (3) set the stage for the generation of a CPN1 “knock-out” mouse, which can be used to determine the biological significance of CPN1 in both normal and diseased conditions. ^

Effects of Estrogen on Muscle Damage in Response to an Acute Resistance Exercise Protocol

Creatine Kinase (CK) is used as a measure of exercise-induced muscle membrane damage. During acute eccentric (muscle lengthening) exercise, muscle sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and Z-lines are damaged, thus causing muscle proteins and enzymes to leak into the interstitial fluid. Strenuous eccentric exercise produces an elevation of oxygen free radicals, which further increases muscle damage. Muscle soreness and fatigue can be attributed to this membrane damage. Estradiol, however, may preserve membrane stability post-exercise (Brancaccio, Maffulli, & Limongelli, 2007; Carter, Dobridge, & Hackney, 2001; Tiidus, 2001). Because estradiol has a similar structure to Vitamin E, which is known to have antioxidant properties, and both are known to affect membrane structure, researchers have proposed that estrogen acts as an antioxidant to provide a protective effect on the post-exercise muscle of women (Sandoval & Matt, 2002). As a result, it has been postulated that muscles in women incur less damage in response to an acute strenuous exercise as compared to men. PURPOSE: To determine if circulating estrogen concentrations are related to muscle damage, as measured by creatine kinase activity and to determine gender differences in creatine kinase as a marker of muscle damage in response to an acute heavy resistance exercise protocol. METHODS: 7 healthy, resistance-trained, eumenhorrheic women (23±3 y, 169±9.1 cm, 66.4±10.5 kg) and 8 healthy, resistance-trained men (25±5 y, 178±6.7 cm, 82.3±9.33 kg) volunteered to participate in the study. Subjects performed an Acute Resistance Exercise Test (ARET) consisting of 6 sets of 5 repetitions Smith machine squats at 90% of their previously determined 1-RM. Blood samples were taken pre-, mid-, post-, 1 hour post-, 6 hours post-, and 24 hours post-exercise. Samples were stored at -80ºC until analyzed. Serum creatine kinase was measured using an assay kit from Genzyme (Framingham, MA). Serum estradiol was measured by an ELISA from GenWay (San Diego, CA). Estradiol b-receptor presence on granulocytes was measured via flow cytometry using primary antibodies from Abcam (Cambridge, MA) and PeCy7 antibodies (secondary) from Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz, CA). RESULTS: No significant correlations between estrogen and CK response were found after an acute resistant exercise protocol. Moreover, no significant change in estradiol receptors were expressed on granulocytes after exercise. Creatine Kinase response, however, differed significantly between genders. Men had higher resting CK concentrations throughout all time points. Creatine Kinase response increased significantly after exercise in both men and women (p=0.008, F=9.798). Men had a significantly higher CK response at 24 hours post exercise than women. A significant condition/sex/time interaction was exhibited in CK response (p=0.02, F=4.547). Perceived general soreness presented a significant condition, sex interaction (p=0.01, F=9.532). DISCUSSION: Although no estradiol and CK response correlations were found in response to exercise, a significant difference in creatine kinase activity was present between men and women. This discrepancy of our results and findings in the literature may be due to the high variability between subjects in creatine kinase activity as well as estrogen concentrations. The lack of significance in change of estradiol receptor expression on granulocytes in response to exercise may be due to intracellular estradiol receptor staining and non-specific gating for granulocytes rather than additional staining for neutrophil markers. Because neutrophils are the initial cells present in the inflammatory response after strenuous exercise, staining for estrogen receptors on this cell type may allow for a better understanding of the effect of estrogen and its hypothesized protective effect against muscle damage. Furthermore, the mechanism of action may include estradiol receptor expression on the muscle fiber itself may play a role in the protective effects of estradiol rather than or in addition to expression on neutrophils. We have shown here that gender differences occur in CK activity as a marker of muscle damage in response to strenuous eccentric exercise, but may not be the result of estradiol concentration or estradiol receptor expression on granulocytes. Other variables should be examined in order to determine the mechanism involved in the difference in creatine kinase as a marker of muscle damage between men and women after heavy resistance exercise.

Regulation of myogenesis and suppression of {\it mck\/} 5$\sp\prime$ enhancer elements by TGF$\beta$ and RAS

The regulation of muscle differentiation, like cell differentiation in general, is only now beginning to be understood. Here are described several key features to myogenesis: a beginning, some intermediary events, and an endpoint. Muscle differentiation proceeds spontaneously when myoblasts are cultured in serum-poor medium. Transforming growth factor type $\beta$ (TGF$\beta$), a component of fetal serum, was found to potently suppress muscle differentiation. Prolonged blockade of differentiation required replenishing TGF$\beta$. When TGF$\beta$ was removed, cells rapidly differentiated. Both TGF$\beta$ and RAS, which also blocks myogenesis, suppress the genes for a series of muscle-specific proteins. Regions that regulate transcription of one such gene, muscle creatine kinase (mck), were located by linking progressively smaller parts of the mck 5$\sp\prime$ region to the marker gene cat and testing the constructs for regulated expression of cat in myoblasts and muscle cells. The mck promoter is not muscle-specific but requires activation. Two enhancers were found: a weak, developmentally regulated enhancer within the first intron, and a strong, compact, and tightly developmentally regulated enhancer about 1.2 Kb upstream of the transcription start site. Activity of this enhancer is eliminated by activated ras. Suppression of activated N-RAS restores potency to the upstream enhancer. Further deletion shows the mck 5$\sp\prime$ enhancer to contain an enhancer core with low but significant muscle-specific activity, and at least one peripheral element that augments core activity. The core and this peripheral element were comprised almost entirely of factor-binding motifs. The peripheral element was inactive as a single copy, but was constitutively active in multiple copies. Regions flanking the peripheral element augmented its activity and conferred partial muscle-specificity. The enhancer core is also modulated by its 5$\sp\prime$ flanking region in a complex manner. Site-specific mutants covering most of the enhancer core and interesting flanking sequences have been made; all mutants tested diminish the activity of the 5$\sp\prime$ enhancer. Alteration of the site to which MyoD1 is reported to bind completely inactivates the enhancer. A theoretical analysis of cooperativity is presented, through which the binding of a constitutively expressed nuclear factor is shown to have weak positive cooperativity. In summary, TGF$\beta$, RAS, and enhancer-binding factors are found to be initial, intermediary, and final regulators, respectively, of muscle differentiation. ^

Regulation of myogenesis by growth signals -growth factors, oncogenes and protein kinases

Establishment of a myogenic phenotype involves antagonism between cell proliferation and differentiation. The recent identification of the MyoD family of muscle-specific transcription factors provides opportunities to dissect at the molecular level the mechanisms through which defined cell type-specific transcription factors respond to environmental cues and regulate differentiation programs. This project is aimed at elucidation of the molecular mechanism whereby growth factors repress myogenesis. Initial studies demonstrated that nuclear oncogenes such as c-fos, junB and c-jun are immediate early genes that respond to serum and TGF-$\beta$. Using the muscle creatine kinase (MCK) enhancer linked to the reporter gene CAT as a marker for differentiation, we showed that transcriptional function of myogenin can be disrupted in the presence of c-Fos, JunB and cjun. In contrast, JunD, which shares DNA-binding specificity with JunB and c-Jun but is expressed constitutively in muscle cells, failed to show the inhibition. The repression by Fos and Jun is targeted at KE-2 motif, the same sequence that mediates myogenin-dependent activation and muscle-specific transactivation. Deletion analysis indicated that the transactivation domain of c-Jun at the N-terminus is responsible for the repression. Considering that myogenin is a phosphoprotein and cAMP and TPA are able to regulate myogenesis, we examined whether constitutively active protein kinase C (PKC) and protein kinase A (PKA) could substitute for exogenous growth factors and prevent transcription activation by myogenin. Indeed, the basic region of myogenin is phosphorylated by PKC at a threonine that is conserved in all members of the MyoD family. Phosphorylation at this site attenuates DNA binding activity of myogenin. Protein kinase A can also phosphorylate myogenin in a region adjacent to the DNA binding domain. However, phosphorylation at this site is insufficient to abrogate myogenin's DNA binding capacity, suggesting that PKA and PKC may affect myogenin transcriptional activity through different mechanisms. These findings provide insight into the mechanisms through which growth factor signals negatively regulate the muscle differentiation program and contribute to an understanding of signal transducing pathways between the cell membrane and nucleus. ^

Estrogen induced desensitization of c -{\it fos\/} messenger RNA expression {\it in vivo\/}

In this thesis, we investigated the regulation of the nuclear proto-oncogene, c-fos by estrogen in vivo. In the uterus, estrogen causes a rapid, dramatic and transient induction of c-fos mRNA and this occurs by transcriptional activation. We have discovered a previously unrecognized regulatory mechanism by which fos becomes desensitized to estrogen following the transient induction. We investigated three aspects of this desensitization: (1) the kinetics and general characteristics of the phenomenon; (2) the molecular mechanism of the desensitization; and (3) the relationship of desensitization to estrogen stimulated DNA synthesis. The desensitization occurs between 3-24 hours after initial hormonal stimulation and is reversible within 72 hours. The desensitization is not species specific, in that it occurs in both the rat and mouse. The desensitization also occurs in at least two estrogen responsive tissues, the uterus and vagina. The desensitization is not unique to c-fos, since both c-myc and c-jun show similar patterns of desensitization. However, the desensitization is not observed with creatine kinase B (CKB), indicating that not all estrogen inducible genes become desensitized. In the second general area, we determined the desensitization is at the transcriptional level. The desensitization is homologous, but not heterologous, since estrogen induction does not desensitize c-fos to other agents. Other studies show that the desensitization is not due to the lack of functional estrogen receptors. Taken together, these findings suggest that the desensitization occurs at the level of the estrogen responsive element. In the third major area, we demonstrated that the desensitization appears to be related to estrogen induced DNA synthesis. Support for this suggestion comes from the observation that short acting estrogens which induce fos, but not DNA synthesis, do not produce desensitization. ^

La resistencia especial en el fútbol

La finalidad de esta tesis es establecer un análisis de la metodología de entrenamiento de la resistencia especial en el futbolista. Su objetivo no está vinculado a realizar propuestas prácticas de entrenamiento, sino más bien, se tratará de abordar una posible justificación fisiológico - metabólica, a partir de la relevancia bioenergética de la creatina, en función de la creciente especialización que debe ir adquiriendo el proceso del entrenamiento deportivo a largo plazo, enfocado al logro de altos rendimientos deportivos. A partir del análisis de conceptos terminológicos de referencia, se asienta la idea general de este trabajo, es decir, la estructuración y desarrollo de la resistencia en los deportes de conjunto, como el fútbol. Los pilares de una adecuada planificación son el conocimiento y la aplicación de distintas leyes y principios del entrenamiento deportivo y su relación con los distintos medios y métodos de entrenamiento, como así también, los efectos de adaptación que provocan. Por lo tanto, a partir del análisis de los requerimientos morfológicos - funcionales de las competiciones de elite en fútbol, se pueden elaborar modelos que servirán de base y como objetivo final al cual debe ser orientado el proceso de entrenamiento. Es decir, que un entrenamiento multianual con miras a la formación de futbolistas de elite, debe respetar la especialización creciente de las cargas de entrenamiento, estableciendo una sucesión metodológica adecuada en función de los objetivos de cada etapa. En función de lo expuesto, se realiza un análisis que va desde la resistencia como capacidad física y su metodología de entrenamiento, recorriendo distintos conceptos y manifestaciones, pasando por el análisis de distintas zonas de intensidad o áreas funcionales, y desembocando en la metodología de entrenamiento intermitente de la resistencia o resistencia especial -en los deportes de conjunto-. Y es a partir de todo el análisis precedente que estamos en condiciones de abordar el entrenamiento específico en el fútbol, y más detalladamente la resistencia específica o intermitente que requiere este deporte. El entrenamiento intermitente puede ser considerado como una metodología cuyo énfasis es puesto en modificaciones que se producen a nivel muscular, por sobre factores centrales de rendimiento, presentándose como una variante óptima para el entrenamiento de la resistencia muscular local y específica del futbolista. Básicamente, el entrenamiento intermitente actuaría sobre dos puntos centrales: la mejora del sistema shuttle de la CrP, y sobre la rapidez de entrega de oxígeno al inicio del ejercicio. Aquí aparece la importancia de la suplementación con Cr: que al aumentar las concentraciones del sustrato, y junto con el entrenamiento, que mejora las reacciones enzimáticas implicadas, potenciaría las mejoras buscadas con este tipo de metodología. Queda por determinar cual es el preciso mecanismo de acción por el cual la recuperación de los fosfatos altamente energéticos se produce: si por biogénesis mitocondrial en las fibras reclutadas - generalmente FT -; o mediante el sistema de proteínas transportadoras de Cr - destacando la importancia de las ST - o por algún otro mecanismo no conocido. Su descubrimiento permitiría direccionar más precisamente el entrenamiento deportivo.

La resistencia especial en el fútbol

La finalidad de esta tesis es establecer un análisis de la metodología de entrenamiento de la resistencia especial en el futbolista. Su objetivo no está vinculado a realizar propuestas prácticas de entrenamiento, sino más bien, se tratará de abordar una posible justificación fisiológico - metabólica, a partir de la relevancia bioenergética de la creatina, en función de la creciente especialización que debe ir adquiriendo el proceso del entrenamiento deportivo a largo plazo, enfocado al logro de altos rendimientos deportivos. A partir del análisis de conceptos terminológicos de referencia, se asienta la idea general de este trabajo, es decir, la estructuración y desarrollo de la resistencia en los deportes de conjunto, como el fútbol. Los pilares de una adecuada planificación son el conocimiento y la aplicación de distintas leyes y principios del entrenamiento deportivo y su relación con los distintos medios y métodos de entrenamiento, como así también, los efectos de adaptación que provocan. Por lo tanto, a partir del análisis de los requerimientos morfológicos - funcionales de las competiciones de elite en fútbol, se pueden elaborar modelos que servirán de base y como objetivo final al cual debe ser orientado el proceso de entrenamiento. Es decir, que un entrenamiento multianual con miras a la formación de futbolistas de elite, debe respetar la especialización creciente de las cargas de entrenamiento, estableciendo una sucesión metodológica adecuada en función de los objetivos de cada etapa. En función de lo expuesto, se realiza un análisis que va desde la resistencia como capacidad física y su metodología de entrenamiento, recorriendo distintos conceptos y manifestaciones, pasando por el análisis de distintas zonas de intensidad o áreas funcionales, y desembocando en la metodología de entrenamiento intermitente de la resistencia o resistencia especial -en los deportes de conjunto-. Y es a partir de todo el análisis precedente que estamos en condiciones de abordar el entrenamiento específico en el fútbol, y más detalladamente la resistencia específica o intermitente que requiere este deporte. El entrenamiento intermitente puede ser considerado como una metodología cuyo énfasis es puesto en modificaciones que se producen a nivel muscular, por sobre factores centrales de rendimiento, presentándose como una variante óptima para el entrenamiento de la resistencia muscular local y específica del futbolista. Básicamente, el entrenamiento intermitente actuaría sobre dos puntos centrales: la mejora del sistema shuttle de la CrP, y sobre la rapidez de entrega de oxígeno al inicio del ejercicio. Aquí aparece la importancia de la suplementación con Cr: que al aumentar las concentraciones del sustrato, y junto con el entrenamiento, que mejora las reacciones enzimáticas implicadas, potenciaría las mejoras buscadas con este tipo de metodología. Queda por determinar cual es el preciso mecanismo de acción por el cual la recuperación de los fosfatos altamente energéticos se produce: si por biogénesis mitocondrial en las fibras reclutadas - generalmente FT -; o mediante el sistema de proteínas transportadoras de Cr - destacando la importancia de las ST - o por algún otro mecanismo no conocido. Su descubrimiento permitiría direccionar más precisamente el entrenamiento deportivo.

La resistencia especial en el fútbol

La finalidad de esta tesis es establecer un análisis de la metodología de entrenamiento de la resistencia especial en el futbolista. Su objetivo no está vinculado a realizar propuestas prácticas de entrenamiento, sino más bien, se tratará de abordar una posible justificación fisiológico - metabólica, a partir de la relevancia bioenergética de la creatina, en función de la creciente especialización que debe ir adquiriendo el proceso del entrenamiento deportivo a largo plazo, enfocado al logro de altos rendimientos deportivos. A partir del análisis de conceptos terminológicos de referencia, se asienta la idea general de este trabajo, es decir, la estructuración y desarrollo de la resistencia en los deportes de conjunto, como el fútbol. Los pilares de una adecuada planificación son el conocimiento y la aplicación de distintas leyes y principios del entrenamiento deportivo y su relación con los distintos medios y métodos de entrenamiento, como así también, los efectos de adaptación que provocan. Por lo tanto, a partir del análisis de los requerimientos morfológicos - funcionales de las competiciones de elite en fútbol, se pueden elaborar modelos que servirán de base y como objetivo final al cual debe ser orientado el proceso de entrenamiento. Es decir, que un entrenamiento multianual con miras a la formación de futbolistas de elite, debe respetar la especialización creciente de las cargas de entrenamiento, estableciendo una sucesión metodológica adecuada en función de los objetivos de cada etapa. En función de lo expuesto, se realiza un análisis que va desde la resistencia como capacidad física y su metodología de entrenamiento, recorriendo distintos conceptos y manifestaciones, pasando por el análisis de distintas zonas de intensidad o áreas funcionales, y desembocando en la metodología de entrenamiento intermitente de la resistencia o resistencia especial -en los deportes de conjunto-. Y es a partir de todo el análisis precedente que estamos en condiciones de abordar el entrenamiento específico en el fútbol, y más detalladamente la resistencia específica o intermitente que requiere este deporte. El entrenamiento intermitente puede ser considerado como una metodología cuyo énfasis es puesto en modificaciones que se producen a nivel muscular, por sobre factores centrales de rendimiento, presentándose como una variante óptima para el entrenamiento de la resistencia muscular local y específica del futbolista. Básicamente, el entrenamiento intermitente actuaría sobre dos puntos centrales: la mejora del sistema shuttle de la CrP, y sobre la rapidez de entrega de oxígeno al inicio del ejercicio. Aquí aparece la importancia de la suplementación con Cr: que al aumentar las concentraciones del sustrato, y junto con el entrenamiento, que mejora las reacciones enzimáticas implicadas, potenciaría las mejoras buscadas con este tipo de metodología. Queda por determinar cual es el preciso mecanismo de acción por el cual la recuperación de los fosfatos altamente energéticos se produce: si por biogénesis mitocondrial en las fibras reclutadas - generalmente FT -; o mediante el sistema de proteínas transportadoras de Cr - destacando la importancia de las ST - o por algún otro mecanismo no conocido. Su descubrimiento permitiría direccionar más precisamente el entrenamiento deportivo.