Dengue in the South-eastern region of Brazil: historical analysis and epidemiology

The aim of the study is an historical analysis of the work undertaken by the Public Health organizations dedicated to the combat of the Aedes aegypti, as well as an epidemiolocal study of persons with unexplained fever, with a view to evaluating the ocurrence of dengue within the population. The Mac-Elisa, Gac-Elisa, hemaglutination inhibition, isolation and typage tests were used. Organophosphate intoxication in agricultural workers was also assessed by measuring concentrations of serie cholinesterase. A sera samples of 2,094 were collected in 23 towns, and the type 1 dengue virus was detected in 17 towns and autochthony was confirmed in 12 of them. The cholinesterase was measured in 2,391 sera samples of which 53 cases had abnormal levels. Poisoning was confirmed in 3 cases. Results reveal an epidemic the gravity of which was not officially know. The relationshipe between levels of IgM and IgG antibodies indicates the outbreak tendency. The widespread distribution of the vector is troubling because of the possibility of the urbanization of wild yellow fever, whereas the absence of A. aegypti in 2 towns with autochthony suggests the existence of another vector. Since there is no vaccine against dengue, the combat of the vector is the most efficient measure for preventing outbreaks. The eradication of the vector depends on government decisions which depend, for their execution, on the organization of the Health System and the propagation of information concerning the prevention of the disease using all possible means because short and long term results depend on the education and the active participation of the entire population.

The role of triple infection with hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type-1 on CD4+ lymphocyte levels in the highly HIV infected population of North-Central Nigeria

We set out to determine the seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C among human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infected individuals in North-Central Nigeria to define the influence of these infections on CD4+ lymphocytes cells among our patients as access to antiretroviral therapy improves across the Nigerian nation. The CD4+ values of 180 confirmed HIV-1 infected individuals were enumerated using a superior fluorescence-activated cell sorter system. These patients were tested for the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen and anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) using third generation enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Fifty (27.8%) patients had active hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection while 33 (18.3%) tested positive for anti-HCV antibody. Of these infections, 110 (61.1%), 37 (20.6%), and 20 (11.1%) had HIV only, HBV/HIV-only, and HCV/HIV-only respectively. A HBV/HCV/HIV coinfection prevalence of 7.2% (13 patients) was recorded. Patients coinfected with HIV/HBV/HCV appeared to have lower CD4+ counts (mean = 107 cells/µl; AIDS defining) when compared to HBV/HIV-only (mean = 377 cells/µl), HCV/HIV-only (mean = 373 cells/µl) and patients with mono HIV infection (mean = 478 cells/µl). Coinfection with HBV or HCV is relatively common among HIV-infected patients in Nigeria and should be a big consideration in the initiation and choice of therapy.

Primary dengue haemorrhagic fever in patients from northeast of Brazil is associated with high levels of interferon-β during acute phase

Dengue is an acute febrile disease caused by the mosquito-borne dengue virus (DENV) that according to clinical manifestations can be classified as asymptomatic, mild or severe dengue. Severe dengue cases have been associated with an unbalanced immune response characterised by an over secretion of inflammatory cytokines. In the present study we measured type I interferon (IFN-I) transcript and circulating levels in primary and secondary DENV infected patients. We observed that dengue fever (DF) and dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) patients express IFN-I differently. While DF and DHF patients express interferon-α similarly (52,71 ± 7,40 and 49,05 ± 7,70, respectively), IFN- β were associated with primary DHF patients. On the other hand, secondary DHF patients were not able to secrete large amounts of IFN- β which in turn may have influenced the high-level of viraemia. Our results suggest that, in patients from our cohort, infection by DENV serotype 3 elicits an innate response characterised by higher levels of IFN- β in the DHF patients with primary infection, which could contribute to control infection evidenced by the low-level of viraemia in these patients. The present findings may contribute to shed light in the role of innate immune response in dengue pathogenesis.

Molecular epidemiology of type 1 and 2 dengue viruses in Brazil from 1988 to 2001

Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection that in recent decades has become a major international public health concern. Epidemic dengue fever reemerged in Brazil in 1981. Since 1990 more than one dengue virus serotype has been circulating in this tropical country and increasing rates of dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome have been detected every year. Some evidence supports the association between the introduction of a new serotype and/or genotype in a region and the appearance of dengue hemorrhagic fever. In order to study the evolutionary relationships and possible detection of the introduction of new dengue virus genotypes in Brazil in the last years, we analyzed partial nucleotide sequences of 52 Brazilian samples of both dengue type 1 and dengue type 2 isolated from 1988 to 2001 from highly endemic regions. A 240-nucleotide-long sequence from the envelope/nonstructural protein 1 gene junction was used for phylogenetic analysis. After comparing the nucleotide sequences originally obtained in this study to those previously studied by others, and analyzing the phylogenetic trees, we conclude that, after the initial introduction of the currently circulating dengue-1 and dengue-2 genotypes in Brazil, there has been no evidence of introduction of new genotypes since 1988. The increasing number of dengue hemorrhagic fever cases seen in Brazil in the last years is probably associated with secondary infections or with the introduction of new serotypes but not with the introduction of new genotypes.

Étude de la sortie du virus herpès simplex de type 1 (HSV 1) hors du noyau

Le virus herpès simplex de type 1 (HSV 1) affecte la majorité de la population mondiale. HSV 1 cause de multiples symptômes délétères dont les plus communs sont les lésions orofaciales usuellement appelées feux sauvages. Le virus peut aussi causer des effets plus sérieux comme la cécité ou des troubles neurologiques. Le virus réside de façon permanente dans le corps de son hôte. Malgré l’existence de nombreux traitements pour atténuer les symptômes causés par HSV 1, aucun médicament ne peut éliminer le virus. Dans le but d’améliorer les connaissances concernant le cycle viral de HSV 1, ce projet cible l’étude du transport du virus dans la cellule hôte. Ce projet aura permis la collecte d’informations concernant le modus operandi de HSV 1 pour sortir des compartiments cellulaires où il séjourne. Les différentes expérimentations ont permis de publier 3 articles dont un article qui a été choisi parmi les meilleurs papiers par les éditeurs de « Journal of Virology » ainsi qu’un 4e article qui a été soumis. Premièrement, un essai in vitro reproduisant la sortie de HSV 1 du noyau a été mis sur pied, via l’isolation de noyaux issus de cellules infectées. Nous avons démontré que tout comme dans les cellules entières, les capsides s’évadent des noyaux isolés dans l’essai in vitro en bourgeonnant avec la membrane nucléaire interne, puis en s’accumulant sous forme de capsides enveloppées entre les deux membranes nucléaires pour finalement être relâchées dans le cytoplasme exclusivement sous une forme non enveloppée. Ces observations appuient le modèle de transport de dé-enveloppement/ré-enveloppement. Deuxièmement, dans le but d’identifier des joueurs clefs viraux impliqués dans la sortie nucléaire du virus, les protéines virales associées aux capsides relâchées par le noyau ont été examinées. La morphologie multicouche du virus HSV 1 comprend un génome d’ADN, une capside, le tégument et une enveloppe. Le tégument est un ensemble de protéines virales qui sont ajoutées séquentiellement sur la particule virale. La séquence d’ajout des téguments de même que les sites intracellulaires où a lieu la tégumentation sont l’objet d’intenses recherches. L’essai in vitro a été utilisé pour étudier cette tégumentation. Les données recueillies suggèrent un processus séquentiel qui implique l’acquisition des protéines UL36, UL37, ICP0, ICP8, UL41, UL42, US3 et possiblement ICP4 sur les capsides relâchées par le noyau. Troisièmement, pour obtenir davantage d’informations concernant la sortie de HSV 1 des compartiments membranaires de la cellule hôte, la sortie de HSV 1 du réseau trans golgien (TGN) a aussi été étudiée. L’étude a révélé l’implication de la protéine kinase D cellulaire (PKD) dans le transport post-TGN de HSV 1. PKD est connue pour réguler le transport de petits cargos et son implication dans le transport de HSV 1 met en lumière l’utilisation d’une machinerie commune pour le transport des petits et gros cargos en aval du TGN. Le TGN n’est donc pas seulement une station de triage, mais est aussi un point de rencontre pour différentes voies de transport intracellulaire. Tous ces résultats contribuent à une meilleure compréhension du processus complexe de maturation du virus HSV 1, ce qui pourrait mener au développement de meilleurs traitements pour combattre le virus. Les données amassées concernant le virus HSV 1 pourraient aussi être appliquées à d’autres virus. En plus de leur pertinence dans le domaine de la virologie, les découvertes issues de ce projet apportent également de nouveaux détails au niveau du transport intracellulaire.

Analyse des protéines cellulaires incorporées dans les particules matures du virus de l’Herpès simplex de type 1

Les virus exploitent la machinerie cellulaire de l’hôte de façon très variée et plusieurs types vont même jusqu’à incorporer certaines protéines cellulaires. Nous avons récemment effectué la première analyse protéomique du virion mature de l’Herpès simplex de type 1 (HSV-1), ce qui nous a permis de déterminer que jusqu’à 49 protéines cellulaires différentes se retrouvaient dans ce virus (Loret, S. et al. (2008). "Comprehensive characterization of extracellular herpes simplex virus type 1 virions." J Virol 82(17): 8605-18.). Afin de déterminer leur importance dans le cycle de réplication d’HSV-1, nous avons mis au point un système de criblage nous permettant de quantifier le virus produit et relâché dans le milieu extracellulaire en utilisant un virus marqué à la GFP ainsi que des petits ARN interférents (pARNi) ciblant spécifiquement ces protéines cellulaires. Cette approche nous a permis de démontrer que 17 des protéines identifiées précédemment jouaient un rôle critique dans la réplication d’HSV-1, suggérant ainsi que leur incorporation dans le virus n’est pas aléatoire. Nous avons ensuite examiné le rôle d’une de ces protéines, DDX3X (DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box polypeptide 3, X-linked), une protéine multifonctionnelle connue pour son implication dans les cycles de réplication de plusieurs virus humains. À l’aide de pARNi ainsi que de différentes lignées cellulaires, dont une lignée DDX3X thermosensible, nous avons démontré que l’inhibition de DDX3X résultait en une diminution du nombre de capsides intracellulaires et induisait une importante diminution de l’expression des gènes viraux. Nous avons aussi démontré que la fraction de DDX3X incorporée dans le virion contribuait activement au cycle infectieux d’HSV-1. Ces résultats confirment l’intérêt de notre approche afin d’étudier les interactions hôte-pathogène en plus de démontrer la contribution des protéines cellulaires incorporées à HSV-1 dans l’infection virale.

Frequencies of CCR5-D32, CCR2-64I and SDF1-3'A mutations in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) seropositive subjects and seronegative individuals from the state of Pará in Brazilian Amazonia

ABSTRACT: The distribution of genetic polymorphisms of chemokine receptors CCR5-D32, CCR2-64I and chemokine (SDF1-3 A) mutations were studied in 110 Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) seropositive individuals (seropositive group) and 139 seronegative individuals (seronegative group) from the population of the northern Brazilian city of Belém which is the capital of the state of Pará in the Brazilian Amazon. The CCR5-D32 mutation was found in the two groups at similar frequencies, i.e. 2.2% for the seronegative group and 2.7% for the seropositive group. The frequencies of the SDF1-3 A mutation were 21.0% for the seronegative group and 15.4% for the seropositive group, and the CCR2-64I allele was found at frequencies of 12.5% for the seronegative group and 5.4% for the seropositive group. Genotype distributions were consistent with Hardy-Weinberg expectations in both groups, suggesting that none of the three mutations has a detectable selective effect. Difference in the allelic and genotypic frequencies was statistically significant for the CCR2 locus, the frequency in the seronegative group being twice that found in the seropositive group. This finding may indicate a protective effect of the CCR2-64I mutation in relation to HIV transmission. However, considering that the CCR2-64I mutation has been more strongly associated with a decreased risk for progression for AIDS than to the resistance to the HIV infection, this could reflect an aspect of population structure or a Type I error.

Prevalência de auto-anticorpos contra antígenos celulares em pacientes com infecção pelos Vírus da dengue e Vírus linfotrópico de células T humanas, HTLV - 1 e 2

A pesquisa de anticorpos contra antígenos celulares requer permanente revisão das informações sobre a interpretação dos resultados, visto que a positividade é observada em parte da população normal e desencadeada transitoriamente por processos infecciosos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar, através da técnica da pesquisa de auto-anticorpos anti-nucleares (ANA) em células HEp-2, a prevalência de auto-anticorpos contra antígenos celulares em três grupos de pessoas: Grupo 1- pacientes com infecção pelo Virus da dengue (VD) (n= 30); Grupo 2 - pacientes com infecção pelos HTLV 1 e 2 (n= 30), Grupo 3 - indivíduos doadores de sangue (n= 100) não infectados e sem manifestações clínicas aparentes. A prevalência de ANA nos Grupos 1 (40%) e 2 (40%) foi altamente significativa em relação ao Grupo 3 (2%) (p<0,0001), com predomínio do padrão citoplasmático em relação ao padrão nuclear. Os indivíduos do Grupo 1 estavam infectados por três espécies do VD, com predominância (p= 0,002) para o DEN 3 (66,7%), entretanto a distribuição da freqüência de ANA de acordo com a espécie, mostrou uma diferença significante (p= 0,0260) entre as infecções pelo VD1 (p= 0,0644) e VD2 (p= 0,0249), em relação ao VD3, mas sem diferença entre os padrões (p= 0,2479). No Grupo 2 a prevalência e o padrão de ANA não mostraram correlação com o tipo de HTLV, embora tenha predominado indivíduos infectados pelo HTLV 1 (p= 0,0035) (76,7%); a maioria não apresentava sintomas clínicos (p= 0,0136), 36,7% mostrava doença compatível com PET/MAH, e a presença de ANA não mostrou diferença significativa entre sintomáticos e assintomáticos (p> 0,05). Não houve correlação de soropositividade com sexo entre os grupos. Concluiu-se que o quadro infeccioso é um importante desencadeador de respostas auto-imunes detectadas laboratorialmente, não se observando influencia nas manifestaçõe clínícas dos agravos. Estudos prospectivos, com controles destes casos, poderão trazer as respostas quanto a importância e significado dos resultados obtidos.

Estudo experimental sobre a resposta imunológica em infecções seqüenciais pelo vírus Dengue 3 e pelo vírus Dengue 2 em primatas não humanos da espécie Callithrix penicillata

A dengue é causada pelo Vírus da dengue (VDEN - Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) e é considerada a arbovirose mais difundida no mundo. Atualmente, não há um animal que sirva como modelo para estudos sobre a patogênese do VDEN. Para investigar a susceptibilidade da espécie Callithrix penicillata ao VDEN foram inoculados amostras do VDEN-3 e do VDEN-2 de isoladas de casos humanos fatais. Para tal, vinte e dois animais foram infectados com VDEN-3 (3,23 × 103 PFU/mL) e, sessenta dias após a infecção (d.p.i.), 11 deles foram secundariamente infectados com VDEN-2 (4,47 × 104 PFU/mL). Sangue, plasma e soro, foram coletados diariamente durante os primeiros sete dias e em 15, 20, 45 e 60 d.p.i.. Foram investigados a produção de anticorpos IgM e inibidores da hemaglutinação, assim como foram análisados parâmetros hematologicos e bioquímicos e o perfil sérico de citocinas (IL-6, TNF-, IL-2, IFN-α, IL-4 e IL-5). A infecção primária (VDEN-3) revelou anticorpos IgM (15- 20 d.p.i.), anticorpos IH (15-60 d.p.i.), aumento dos níveis de TNF-α e IFN-γ e diminuição da IL-5. Na infecção secundária (VDEN-2), foi detectado anticorpos IgM (15-20 d.p.i.), anticorpos IH (15-60 d.p.i.) e diminuição dos níveis de IL-6, TNF-α, de IFN-γ e IL-5. Além disso, foi observado em ambas infecções leucopenia, neutropenia, linfocitopenia, monocitopenia, trombocitopenia, e aumentou da AST. O aumento dos níveis de INF-γ e TNF- α indicaram a ativação da resposta inflamatória, com a diferenciação para a resposta celular e supressão da proliferação de citocinas características da resposta humoral. A presença de anticorpos neutralizantes pode ter ocasionado a supressão da resposta inflamatória na infecção secundária o que pode ter levado a ausência de sinais de Febre Hemorrágica do Dengue/Sindrome do Choque do Dengue (FHD/SCD) durante a infecção secundária (VDEN- 2). Os resultados indicam que o primatas não humanos da espécie Callithrix penicillata demonstraram susceptibilidade à cepas de VDEN de origem humana, sugerindo que esses animais são um bom modelo para estudos da resposta imunológica da Febre do Dengue (FD), assim como para a avaliação de uma vacina tetravalente.

Detection of Mayaro virus infections during a dengue outbreak in Mato Grosso, Brazil

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Disparate actions of hydroxyurea in potentiation of purine and pyrimidine 2',3'-dideoxynucleoside activities against replication of human immunodeficiency virus.

We and other groups have recently reported the potentiation by ribonucleotide reductase inhibitors such as hydroxyurea of the anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) activity of purine and pyrimidine 2',3'-dideoxynucleosides in both resting and phytohemagglutinin-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Little agreement prevails, however, as to the mechanism of the synergistic effects described. We report here that in phytohemagglutinin-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells, two mechanisms exist for the potentiation of the anti-HIV-1 activity by low-dose hydroxyurea of the purine-based dideoxynucleoside 2',3'-dideoxyinosine and the pyrimidine-based dideoxynucleosides 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and 2',3'-dideoxycytidine. For 2',3'-dideoxyinosine, the enhancement arises from a specific depletion of dATP by hydroxyurea, resulting in a favorable shift of the 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine 5'-triphosphate/dATP ratio. For the pyrimidine dideoxynucleosides 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and 2',3'-dideoxycytidine, the more modest anti-HIV enhancement results from hydroxyurea-induced increases of pyrimidine kinase activities in the salvage pathway and, hence, increased 5'-phosphorylation of these drugs, while depletion of the corresponding deoxynucleoside 5'-triphosphates (dTTP and dCTP) plays no significant role.

High prevalence of herpes simplex virus (HSV)- type 2 co-infection among HIV-positive women in Ukraine, but no increased HIV mother-to-child transmission risk.

BACKGROUND Over 3500 HIV-positive women give birth annually in Ukraine, a setting with high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections. Herpes simplex virus Type 2 (HSV-2) co-infection may increase HIV mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) risk. We explored factors associated with HSV-2 seropositivity among HIV-positive women in Ukraine, and its impact on HIV MTCT. METHODS Data on 1513 HIV-positive women enrolled in the Ukraine European Collaborative Study from 2007 to 2012 were analysed. Poisson and logistic regression models respectively were fit to investigate factors associated with HSV-2 seropositivity and HIV MTCT. RESULTS Median maternal age was 27 years (IQR 24-31), 53% (796/1513) had been diagnosed with HIV during their most recent pregnancy and 20% had a history of injecting drugs. Median antenatal CD4 count was 430 cells/mm(3) (IQR 290-580). Ninety-six percent had received antiretroviral therapy antenatally. HSV-2 seroprevalence was 68% (1026/1513). In adjusted analyses, factors associated with HSV-2 antibodies were history of pregnancy termination (APR 1.30 (95% CI 1.18-1.43) for ≥ 2 vs. 0), having an HIV-positive partner (APR 1.15 (95% CI 1.05-1.26) vs partner's HIV status unknown) and HCV seropositivity (APR 1.23 (95 % CI 1.13-1.35)). The overall HIV MTCT rate was 2.80% (95% CI 1.98-3.84); no increased HIV MTCT risk was detected among HSV-2 seropositive women after adjusting for known risk factors (AOR 1.43 (95% CI 0.54-3.77). CONCLUSION No increased risk of HIV MTCT was detected among the 68% of HIV-positive women with antibodies to HSV-2, in this population with an overall HIV MTCT rate of 2.8%. Markers of ongoing sexual risk among HIV-positive HSV-2 seronegative women indicate the importance of interventions to prevent primary HSV-2 infection during pregnancy in this high-risk group.

Primary dengue haemorrhagic fever in patients from northeast of Brazil is associated with high levels of interferon-b during acute phase

Dengue is an acute febrile disease caused by the mosquito-borne dengue virus (DENV) that according to clinical manifestations can be classified as asymptomatic, mild or severe dengue. Severe dengue cases have been associated with an unbalanced immune response characterised by an over secretion of inflammatory cytokines. In the present study we measured type I interferon (IFN-I) transcript and circulating levels in primary and secondary DENV infected patients. We observed that dengue fever (DF) and dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) patients express IFN-I differently. While DF and DHF patients express interferon-a similarly (52,71 ± 7,40 and 49,05 ± 7,70, respectively), high levels of circulating IFN-b were associated with primary DHF patients. On the other hand, secondary DHF patients were not able to secrete large amounts of IFN-b which in turn may have influenced the high-level of viraemia. Our results suggest that, in patients from our cohort, infection by DENV serotype 3 elicits an innate response characterised by higher levels of IFN-b in the DHF patients with primary infection, which could contribute to control infection evidenced by the low-level of viraemia in these patients. The present findings may contribute to shed light in the role of innate immune response in dengue pathogenesis.

A systematic review of observational studies on oxidative/nitrosative stress involvement in dengue pathogenesis

Objective: Our objective was to systematically review the published observational research related to the role of oxidative-nitrosative stress in pathogenesis of dengue. Methods: We searched electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, The COCHRANE library, ScienceDirect, Scopus, SciELO, LILACS via Virtual Health Library, Google Scholar) using the term: dengue, dengue virus, severe dengue, oxidative stress, nitrosative stress, antioxidants, oxidants, free radicals, oxidized lipid products, lipid peroxides, nitric oxide, and nitric oxide synthase. Articles were selected for review by title and abstract excluding letter, review, in vivo and in vitro studies, and duplicates studies. Selected articles were reviewed for study design, original purposes, sample size, main outcomes, methods, and oxidative-nitrosative stress markers values. Results: In total, 4,331 non-duplicates articles were identified from electronic databases searches, of which 16 were eligible for full text searching. Data from the observational studies originate from Asian countries (50%; 8/16), South American countries (31.2%; 5/16), and Central America and the Caribbean countries (18.8%; 3/16). Casecontrol study was the type of design most common in researches reviewed. The 1997 World Health Organization (WHO) dengue case classification criteria were used in all studies included in this review. Conclusions: Based on published data found in peer-reviewed literature, oxidative and nitrosative stress are demonstrated by changes in plasma levels of nitric oxide, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation markers in patients with dengue infection. Additionally, elevated serum protein carbonyls and malondialdehyde levels appear to be associated with dengue disease severity.

HTLV-1 Tax Specific CD8+ T Cells Express Low Levels of Tim-3 in HTLV-1 Infection: Implications for Progression to Neurological Complications

The T cell immunoglobulin mucin 3 (Tim-3) receptor is highly expressed on HIV-1-specific T cells, rendering them partially ""exhausted'' and unable to contribute to the effective immune mediated control of viral replication. To elucidate novel mechanisms contributing to the HTLV-1 neurological complex and its classic neurological presentation called HAM/TSP (HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis), we investigated the expression of the Tim-3 receptor on CD8(+) T cells from a cohort of HTLV-1 seropositive asymptomatic and symptomatic patients. Patients diagnosed with HAM/TSP down-regulated Tim-3 expression on both CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells compared to asymptomatic patients and HTLV-1 seronegative controls. HTLV-1 Tax-specific, HLA-A*02 restricted CD8(+) T cells among HAM/TSP individuals expressed markedly lower levels of Tim-3. We observed Tax expressing cells in both Tim-3(+) and Tim-3(-) fractions. Taken together, these data indicate that there is a systematic downregulation of Tim-3 levels on T cells in HTLV-1 infection, sustaining a profoundly highly active population of potentially pathogenic T cells that may allow for the development of HTLV-1 complications.