Phagocytosis and Nitric Oxide Levels in Rheumatic Inflammatory States in Elderly Women

Background Very few studies have investigated, in the elderly, the effect of rheumatic inflammatory states on phagocyte function and free radical production. The objective of this article is to evaluate phagocytosis by neutrophils and the production of nitric oxide (.NO) by monocytes in elderly women recruited among patients of the Brazilian Public Health System. Methods: Forty patients aged more than 60 years with rheumatic inflammatory diseases were studied. Phagocytosis was measured by flow cytometry. .NO production was measured by the total nitrite assay and conventional inflammation markers were determined. Data were analyzed with the Mann Whitney nonparametric test and P<0.05 was considered significant. Results. C-reactive protein levels and white blood cell counts were significantly higher in inflammation than in the control group (P<0.05). The phagocytosis fluorescence intensity per neutrophil and the percentual of neutrophils expressing phagocytosis were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the test than in the control group. Furthermore, there was significant .NO overproduction by monocytes, (P<0.05). Conclusion: Phagocytosis and .NO production are affected by rheumatic states. This suggests that the increased .NO levels may play a part in the increased oxidative stress in rheumatic diseases in elderly women. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 25:47-51, 2011. (C) 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Phagocytosis, Oxidative Burst, and Produced Reactive Species are Affected by Iron Deficiency Anemia and Anemia of Chronic Diseases in Elderly

Iron and oxidative stress have a regulatory interplay. During the oxidative burst, phagocytic cells produce free radicals such as hypochlorous acid (HOCl). Nevertheless, scarce studies evaluated the effect of either iron deficiency anemia (IDA) or anemia of chronic disease (ACD) on phagocyte function in the elderly. The aim of the present study was to determine the oxidative burst, phagocytosis, and nitric oxide ((aEuro cent)NO) and HOCl, reactive species produced by monocytes and neutrophils in elderly with ACD or IDA. Soluble transferrin receptor, serum ferritin, and soluble transferrin receptor/log ferritin (TfR-F) index determined the iron status. The study was constituted of 39 patients aged over 60 (28 women and 11 men) recruited from the Brazilian Public Health System. Oxidative burst fluorescence intensity per neutrophil in IDA group and HOCl generation in both ACD and IDA groups were found to be lower (p < 0.05). The percentages of neutrophils and monocytes expressing phagocytosis in ACD group were found to be higher (p < 0.05). There was an overproduction of (aEuro cent)NO from monocytes, whereas the fundamental generation of HOCl appeared to be lower. Phagocytosis, oxidative burst, and (aEuro cent)NO and HOCl production are involved in iron metabolism regulation in elderly patients with ACD and IDA.

Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of schizophrenia and related disorders

Background: The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists is co-ordinating the development of clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) in psychiatry, funded under the National Mental Health Strategy (Australia) and the New Zealand Health Funding Authority. This paper presents CPGs for schizophrenia and related disorders. Over the past decade schizophrenia has become more treatable than ever before. A new generation of drug therapies, a renaissance of psychological and psychosocial interventions and a first generation of reform within the specialist mental health system have combined to create an evidence-based climate of realistic optimism. Progressive neuroscientific advances hold out the strong possibility of more definitive biological treatments in the near future. However, this improved potential for better outcomes and quality of life for people with schizophrenia has not been translated into reality in Australia. The efficacy-effectiveness gap is wider for schizophrenia than any other serious medical disorder. Therapeutic nihilism, under-resourcing of services and a stalling of the service reform process, poor morale within specialist mental health services, a lack of broad-based recovery and life support programs, and a climate of tenacious stigma and consequent lack of concern for people with schizophrenia are the contributory causes for this failure to effectively treat. These guidelines therefore tackle only one element in the endeavour to reduce the impact of schizophrenia. They distil the current evidence-base and make recommendations based on the best available knowledge. Method: A comprehensive literature review (1990-2003) was conducted, including all Cochrane schizophrenia reviews and all relevant meta-analyses, and a number of recent international clinical practice guidelines were consulted. A series of drafts were refined by the expert committee and enhanced through a bi-national consultation process. Treatment recommendations: This guideline provides evidence-based recommendations for the management of schizophrenia by treatment type and by phase of illness. The essential features of the guidelines are: (i) Early detection and comprehensive treatment of first episode cases is a priority since the psychosocial and possibly the biological impact of illness can be minimized and outcome improved. An optimistic attitude on the part of health professionals is an essential ingredient from the outset and across all phases of illness. (ii) Comprehensive and sustained intervention should be assured during the initial 3-5 years following diagnosis since course of illness is strongly influenced by what occurs in this 'critical period'. Patients should not have to 'prove chronicity' before they gain consistent access and tenure to specialist mental health services. (iii) Antipsychotic medication is the cornerstone of treatment. These medicines have improved in quality and tolerability, yet should be used cautiously and in a more targeted manner than in the past. The treatment of choice for most patients is now the novel antipsychotic medications because of their superior tolerability and, in particular, the reduced risk of tardive dyskinesia. This is particularly so for the first episode patient where, due to superior tolerability, novel agents are the first, second and third line choice. These novel agents are nevertheless associated with potentially serious medium to long-term side-effects of their own for which patients must be carefully monitored. Conventional antipsychotic medications in low dosage may still have a role in a small proportion of patients, where there has been full remission and good tolerability; however, the indications are shrinking progressively. These principles are now accepted in most developed countries. (vi) Clozapine should be used early in the course, as soon as treatment resistance to at least two antipsychotics has been demonstrated. This usually means incomplete remission of positive symptomatology, but clozapine may also be considered where there are pervasive negative symptoms or significant or persistent suicidal risk is present. (v) Comprehensive psychosocial interventions should be routinely available to all patients and their families, and provided by appropriately trained mental health professionals with time to devote to the task. This includes family interventions, cognitive-behaviour therapy, vocational rehabilitation and other forms of therapy, especially for comorbid conditions, such as substance abuse, depression and anxiety. (vi) The social and cultural environment of people with schizophrenia is an essential arena for intervention. Adequate shelter, financial security, access to meaningful social roles and availability of social support are essential components of recovery and quality of life. (vii) Interventions should be carefully tailored to phase and stage of illness, and to gender and cultural background. (viii) Genuine involvement of consumers and relatives in service development and provision should be standard. (ix) Maintenance of good physical health and prevention and early treatment of serious medical illness has been seriously neglected in the management of schizophrenia, and results in premature death and widespread morbidity. Quality of medical care for people with schizophrenia should be equivalent to the general community standard. (x) General practitioners (GPs)s should always be closely involved in the care of people with schizophrenia. However, this should be truly shared care, and sole care by a GP with minimal or no special Optimal treatment of schizophrenia requires a multidisciplinary team approach with a consultant psychiatrist centrally involved.

A stepwise approach to stroke surveillance in Brazil: the EMMA (Estudo de Mortalidade e Morbidade do Acidente Vascular Cerebral) study

Background Stroke mortality rates in Brazil are the highest in the Americas. Deaths from cerebrovascular disease surpass coronary heart disease. Aim To verify stroke mortality rates and morbidity in an area of Sao Paulo, Brazil, using the World Health Organization Stepwise Approach to Stroke Surveillance. Methods We used the World Health Organization Stepwise Approach to Stroke Surveillance structure of stroke surveillance. The hospital-based data comprised fatal and nonfatal stroke (Step 1). We gathered stroke-related mortality data in the community using World Health Organization questionnaires (Step 2). The questionnaire determining stroke prevalence was activated door to door in a family-health-programme neighbourhood (Step 3). Results A total of 682 patients 18 years and above, including 472 incident cases, presented with cerebrovascular disease and were enrolled in Step 1 during April-May 2009. Cerebral infarction (84 center dot 3%) and first-ever stroke (85 center dot 2%) were the most frequent. In Step 2, 256 deaths from stroke were identified during 2006-2007. Forty-four per cent of deaths were classified as unspecified stroke, 1/3 as ischaemic stroke, and 1/4 due to haemorrhagic subtype. In Step 3, 577 subjects over 35 years old were evaluated at home, and 244 cases of stroke survival were diagnosed via a questionnaire, validated by a board-certified neurologist. The population demographic characteristics were similar in the three steps, except in terms of age and gender. Conclusion By including data from all settings, World Health Organization stroke surveillance can provide data to help plan future resources that meet the needs of the public-health system.

Multicenter double blind trial of autologous bone marrow mononuclear cell transplantation through intracoronary injection post acute myocardium infarction - MiHeart/AMI study

Background: Myocardial infarction remains as a major cause of mortality worldwide and a high rate of survivors develop heart failure as a sequel, resulting in a high morbidity and elevated expenditures for health system resources. We have designed a multicenter trial to test for the efficacy of autologous bone marrow (ABM) mononuclear cell (MC) transplantation in this subgroup of patients. The main hypothesis to be tested is that treated patients will have a significantly higher ejection fraction (EF) improvement after 6 months than controls. Methods: A sample of 300 patients admitted with ST elevation acute myocardial infarction (STEMI) and left ventricle (LV) systolic dysfunction, and submitted to successful mechanical or chemical recanalization of the infarct-related coronary artery will be selected for inclusion and randomized to either treated or control group in a double blind manner. The former group will receive 100 x 106 MC suspended in saline with 5% autologous serum in the culprit vessel, while the latter will receive placebo (saline with 5% autologous serum). Implications: Many phase I/II clinical trials using cell therapy for STEMI have been reported, demonstrating that cell transplantation is safe and may lead to better preserved LV function. Patients with high risk to develop systolic dysfunction have the potential to benefit more. Larger randomized, double blind and controlled trials to test for the efficacy of cell therapies in patients with high risk for developing heart failure are required.

COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS OF CISPLATIN-BASED CHEMORADIATION TO TREAT PATIENTS WITH UNRESECTABLE, NONMETASTATIC HEAD AND NECK CANCER IN BRAZIL

Background. The purpose of this study was to analyze the cost-effectiveness of cisplatin-based chemoradiation compared to radiation therapy (RT) alone to treat patients with advanced head and neck cancer in Brazil. Methods. Data were collected retrospectively from the medical records of 33 patients treated with RT alone (strategy 1) and from 29 patients treated with cisplatin-based chemoradiation (strategy 2). The Brazilian National Health System (Sistema Unico de Saude [SUS]) reimbursement parameters perspective was considered, and the effectiveness was measured in years of disease-free life gained. One-way sensitivity analysis was performed to determine robustness of this study. Results. In strategy 1, there were 31% of the patients who lived without disease progression for more than 13 months after treatment, compared to 58% of patients in strategy 2. According to SUS parameters, the total cost per patient in strategy 1 was $1167.00 U.S. dollars and in strategy 2, it was $2058.00 U.S. dollars. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was $3303.00 U.S. dollars per life-year gained. Conclusion. Cisplatin-based chemoradiation proved to be more cost-effective than RT alone. (C) 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 33: 1199-1205, 2011

Can Mobile Units Improve the Strategies for Cervical Cancer Prevention?

Cervical cancer is a serious public health problem in women in developing countries because of absence or ineffectiveness of screening programs. Several biases to access medical care and inequity of public health system in a continental country like Brazil limit the implementation of adequate programs to appropriately prevent the cervical cancer. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the results of applying the mobile unit (MU) for cervical cancer screening. From May 2003 to May 2004, a cervical cancer screening was offered to women aged 20-69 years, residing in 19 municipal districts of the Barretos county region, in Sao Paulo. Out of the 9,560 examination available, 2,964 (31%) women underwent screening. The medium distance traveled by the MU was 45 km. The medium time spent by women in the MU for completion of the questionnaire and doing the exam was 20 minutes. It was observed that 17.0% of women screened had never had the test or had not had it repeated within the last 3 years. The negative response was more common among women aged 20 to 29 years and 60 to 69 years and among women with less schooling and lower socio-economic income (P < 0.05). MU can significantly overcome the chronic deficiency of public health system accessibility offering opportunity to these women to participate in screening programs. Diagn. Cytopathol. 2010;38:727-730. (C) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Cost-Effectiveness of Palliation of Unresectable Esophageal Cancer

Introduction Different modalities of palliation for obstructive symptoms in patients with unresectable esophageal cancer (EC) exist. However, these therapeutic alternatives have significant differences in costs and effectiveness. Methods A Markov model was designed to compare the cost-effectiveness (CE) of self-expandable stent (SES), brachytherapy and laser in the palliation of unresectable EC. Patients were assigned to one of the strategies, and the improvement in swallowing function was compared given the treatment efficacy, probability of survival, and risks of complications associated to each strategy. Probabilities and parameters for distribution were based on a 9-month time frame. Results Under the base-case scenario, laser has the lowest CE ratio, followed by brachytherapy at an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $4,400.00, and SES is a dominated strategy. In the probabilistic analysis, laser is the strategy with the highest probability of cost-effectiveness for willingness to pay (WTP) values lower than $3,201 and brachytherapy for all WTP yielding a positive net health benefit (NHB) (threshold $4,440). The highest probability of cost-effectiveness for brachytherapy is 96%, and consequently, selection of suboptimal strategies can lead to opportunity losses for the US health system, ranging from US$ 4.32 to US$ 38.09 million dollars over the next 5-20 years. Conclusion Conditional to the WTP and current US Medicare costs, palliation of unresectable esophageal cancers with brachytherapy provides the largest amount of NHB and is the strategy with the highest probability of CE. However, some level of uncertainly remains, and wrong decisions will be made until further knowledge is acquired.

The universal newborn hearing screening in Brazil: From identification to intervention

Objective: The objective of the study is to investigate the results of the newborn hearing screening program carried out in a Public Hospital in Brazil, in the first 3 years regarding: (1) the prevalence of hearing impairment; (2) the influence of the universal hearing screening program on the age at which the diagnosis of hearing loss is defined; (3) the cost effectiveness of the program; (4) the outcomes, in terms of the age in which the hearing rehabilitation started. Methods: A descriptive study of the first 3 years after starting the universal newborn hearing screening in a Public Hospital of Bauru, Sao Paulo state, Brazil. The screening method consists of a two-stage screening approach with transient otoacoustic emissions (TOAE), conducted by an audiologist. If the outcome in the second-stage screening is REFER, the infant is submitted to diagnostic follow-up testing and intervention at the Audiology and Speech Pathology Clinic at the University of Sao Paulo, campus of Bauru. The evaluation of the costs of the universal newborn hearing screening program per each screened newborn (around 4000/year) was done based on a proposal by the National Center for Hearing Assessment and Management, of the Utah State University, United States of America. Results: 11,466 newborns were submitted to hearing screening, corresponding to 90.52% of the living newborns. The prevalence of sensorineural hearing loss was 0.96:1000. Of the 11 children with sensorineural hearing loss, eight children received hearing aids and five started the therapeutic process before the age of 1. Currently, four children between the ages of 11 months and 2 years old were submitted to cochlear implant surgery. The cost of hearing screening was US$7.00 and the annual cost of the universal newborn hearing screening program was US$26,940.47. Conclusion: The hospital-based universal newborn hearing screening carried out through the Brazilian National Health System is viable, with promising results. However, in a country such as Brazil, which presents large socio-economic differences, the same type of analyses should be performed in several regions, so as to take into account specific aspects, to implement the newborn hearing screening along with the Public System. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The supportive care needs of men with prostate cancer (2000)

The diagnosis and subsequent treatment of prostate cancer is followed by a range of significant disease specific and iatrogenic sequelae. However, the supportive care needs of men with prostate cancer are not well described in the literature. The present study assesses the supportive care needs of men with prostate cancer who are members of prostate cancer self-help groups in Queensland, Australia. In all, 206 men aged between 48 and 85 years (mean = 68) completed the Supportive Care Needs Survey (SCNS) (62% response). The SCNS is a validated measure assessing perceived need in the domains of psychological needs, health system and information needs, physical and daily living needs, patient care and support, and sexuality. Items assessing need for access to services and resources were also included. One third of the sample reported a moderate to high need for help for multiple items in the sexuality, psychological and health system and information domains. Younger men reported greater need in the sexuality domain; living in major urban centres was predictive of greater psychological need; being closer to the time of diagnosis was related to greater need for help in the physical and daily living domain; having prostate cancer that is not in remission, having received radiation therapy, and lower levels of education were predictive of greater need for help in patient care and support. Of the total sample, 55% of men had used alternative cancer treatments in the past 12 months, with younger and more educated men more likely to use alternative therapies. Interventions in sexuality, psychological concerns and informational support are priorities for men with prostate cancer. Copyright (C) 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Ações de prevenção da deficiência mental, dirigidas a gestantes e recém-nascidos, no âmbito da saúde pública da grande Vitória-ES

Fazer prevenção em Saúde Pública implica em conhecimento sistematizado para a proposição de programas e sua avaliação. Quanto à prevenção de Deficiência Mental, que atinge cerca de 10% da população, pouco se conhece no país. Adotando uma metodologia para levantamento de ações preventivas de DM em hospitais e unidades de saúde, junto a gestantes e recém-nascidos, foi possível descrever e analisar a atuação da rede pública de saúde da Grande Vitória/ES, indicando os níveis de prevenção mais atendidos. Foram levantadas as ações de prevenção (AP) de cinco hospitais públicos de grande porte, nove (31%) unidades de saúde e seis secretarias de saúde, entre 1996-97. Os dados de 25 entrevistas mostram que esses locais realizavam 51,5% das 433 AP possíveis (57,4% da prevenção primária e 45,5% da secundária). Particularizando a atuação de cada município e local pesquisado, os dados fornecem subsídios para análises e possíveis mudanças nos indicadores de saúde materno-infantil.

Os processos de formação na Política Nacional de Humanização : a experiência de um curso para gestores e trabalhadores da atenção básica em saúde

Este artigo tem como objetivo relatar a experiência de um curso de formação da Política Nacional de Humanização voltado para gestores e trabalhadores da atenção básica de um município no estado do Rio de Janeiro. O curso visou a formação de apoiadores institucionais capazes de fomentar rede no Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), promover mudanças e consolidação nos modos de atenção e de gestão dos serviços. Como referencial metodológico, buscou-se um modo de "formação-intervenção" que fosse baseado em práticas concretas de intervenção dos trabalhadores nos processos de trabalho em saúde. O curso envolveu quarenta participantes, gestores e trabalhadores de nível médio e superior, ligados à atenção básica, oriundos da Estratégia de Saúde da Família e de Unidades de Saúde. Como resultados destacam-se ações de co-gestão no formato de reuniões com os usuários para o compartilhamento de decisões relativas ao serviço; implementação de acolhimento, com intervenções que garantam o acesso do usuário ao serviço; e de clínica ampliada, com discussões em equipe dos casos clínicos; e ações no campo da saúde do trabalhador, como efeito das discussões dos processos de trabalho nas equipes multiprofissionais.

Um seminário dispositivo : a humanização do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) em debate

O artigo discute o processo de construção do seminário "Humanização do SUS em Debate" indicando sua conexão com os desafios atuais do SUS e com as proposições da Política Nacional de Humanização (PNH). Apresenta os princípios e diretrizes da Política Nacional de Humanização do SUS e seu processo de construção, discutindo os diversos sentidos do termo humanização. Ao final é indicada a aposta metodológica do seminário que se destinou a promover um amplo debate sobre a humanização do SUS, por meio de rodas de conversação que objetivavam a interface com profissionais que atuam na formação dos trabalhadores do SUS, responsáveis pela produção de conhecimento na área da saúde e pela formação dos acadêmicos neste campo.

Entre mortificações e resistências : a saúde e o psicotrópico no sistema prisional

A saúde e o uso do psicotrópico no sistema prisional habitam um paradoxo. O sistema penitenciário, nas últimas décadas, passou por algumas transformações. No mundo, as estatísticas apontam crescimento populacional carcerário e prisões superlotadas, em condições precárias. No Brasil, a situação não é diferente: em 10 anos a população prisional brasileira duplicou e as condições de confinamento são paupérrimas, o que acaba contribuindo para a prevalência de doenças infectocontagiosas. Diante desta realidade, em 2003 homologou-se o Plano Nacional de Saúde no Sistema Penitenciário (PNSSP) que, em consonância com os princípios do Sistema Único de Saúde, visa garantir a integralidade e a universalidade de acesso aos serviços de saúde para a população penitenciária. O estado do Espírito Santo aderiu ao PNSSP e formulou o Plano Operativo Estadual de Atenção Integral à Saúde da População Prisional (2004), contudo, foi a partir de 2010 que se efetivou o acesso aos serviços de saúde prisional capixaba. Neste contexto, a pesquisa de mestrado buscou investigar as práticas de saúde no sistema prisional e as formas de usos do psicotrópico por presos da Penitenciária de Segurança Máxima II (PSMA II), localizada no Complexo Penitenciário de Viana, Espírito Santo. Para tanto, foi necessário habitar o sistema penitenciário capixaba e realizar entrevistas semiestruturadas com profissionais da gestão de saúde prisional da Secretaria Estadual de Justiça do Espírito Santo, com profissional da área da medicina psiquiátrica e com presos da PSMA II. Dessa forma, foi possível observar que a saúde no sistema penitenciário, bem como os usos do psicotrópico, encontram-se em um espaço poroso. As práticas de saúde podem fortalecer estratégias de controle e produzir mortificação, como podem escapar dos investimentos biopolíticos e produzir resistência. O uso do medicamento psicotrópico por sujeitos privados de liberdade encontra-se nessa mesma ambivalência: podem servir como instrumentos regularizadores de captura, como podem produzir autonomia nas suas formas de uso pelos presos. Por fim, entre mortificações e resistências, afirma-se que é o próprio preso que administrará os tensionamentos desse paradoxo e irá produzir vida, potência de vida.

Caminhando pelo fio da história: a residência multiprofissional em saúde nos espaços de construção da política de formação de trabalhadores para o SUS

Este trabalho analisa o Programa de Residência Multiprofissional em Saúde, com objetivo de identificar como o Programa de Residência Multiprofissional em Saúde, desenvolvido pelo Ministério da Educação e pelo Ministério da Saúde a partir de 2005, tem se constituído como uma proposta de política de formação profissional para o SUS. Foi realizada pesquisa documental com análise de conteúdo que possibilitou configurar a Política Nacional de Gestão da Educação na Saúde, na área de formação do ensino superior, especificamente na pós-graduação, onde se situa a modalidade Residências Multiprofissionais. As legislações do Sistema Único de Saúde para a formação dessa política determinam diretrizes para a formação na área da saúde baseadas na integração ensino/Serviço. São eixos que se destacam no interior do processo de constituição da política de formação profissional e são as bases dos Programas de Residência Multiprofissional em Saúde. Constatou-se que houve, na primeira metade dos anos 2000, o surgimento de inúmeros atores (fóruns de residentes, coordenadores e preceptores) que estiveram presentes na luta para estruturação da Comissão Nacional de Residência Multiprofissional em Saúde, também presentes na disputa acirrada da composição e da luta pelo reconhecimento das Residências Multiprofissionais, a partir do ano 2005. Há um campo que coloca interesses em confronto e por onde caminha a definição da base legal para institucionalização do Programa. Polariza-se e ganha força posicionamentos corporativistas indo contra aos pressupostos do perfil profissional para a saúde. Ao mesmo tempo observa-se o esvaziamento das Residências na atenção básica e o movimento do Ministério da Saúde e do Ministério da Educação para implantar as Residências Multiprofissionais nos Hospitais Universitários Federais, direcionando especialmente aos serviços de alta complexidade. Os riscos podem ser observados na conformação da formação em saúde no plano da tarefa do fazer. Frente ao contexto de precarização do trabalho, fragiliza-se a presença dos residentes para cobrir o déficit de trabalhadores nas instituições de saúde, tornando necessárias uma intensa defesa e afirmação dos residentes enquanto profissionais em formação e não profissionais de serviço. Diante desse quadro fica a dúvida quanto ao papel das Residências Multiprofissionais nas transformações do modo de se produzir saúde e formação profissional. Por outro lado a observação dos vários aspectos vinculados à residência tem demonstrado também que elas, contraditoriamente, tem sido, ou podem ser, também um reduto importante de resistência à sucumbência dos novos contornos que vêm sendo desenhado no próprio SUS. E que apesar desse contexto, elas têm sido importantes como qualificação dos serviços e dos profissionais. Há um consenso em torno da importância das presenças dos residentes e dos tutores nos serviços, através dos seus questionamentos para rompimento com práticas de cunho conservador, pois a presença dos residentes nas equipes multiprofissionais pode assumir esse enfrentamento.