Early diagnosis of breast cancer

The greatest effect on reducing mortality in breast cancer comes from the detection and treatment of invasive cancer when it is as small as possible. Although mammography screening is known to be effective, observer errors are frequent and false-negative cancers can be found in retrospective studies of prior mammograms. In the year 2001, 67 women with 69 surgically proven cancers detected at screening in the Mammography Centre of Helsinki University Hospital had previous mammograms as well. These mammograms were analyzed by an experienced screening radiologist, who found that 36 lesions were already visible in previous screening rounds. CAD (Second Look v. 4.01) detected 23 of these missed lesions. Eight readers with different kinds of experience with mammography screening read the films of 200 women with and without CAD. These films included 35 of those missed lesions and 16 screen-detected cancers. CAD sensitivity was 70.6% and specificity 15.8%. Use of CAD lengthened the mean time spent for readings but did not significantly affect readers sensitivities or specificities. Therefore the use of applied version of CAD (Second Look v. 4.01) is questionable. Because none of those eight readers found exactly same cancers, two reading methods were compared: summarized independent reading (at least a single cancer-positive opinion within the group considered decisive) and conference consensus reading (the cancer-positive opinion of the reader majority was considered decisive). The greatest sensitivity of 74.5% was achieved when the independent readings of 4 best-performing readers were summarized. Overall the summarized independent readings were more sensitive than conference consensus readings (64.7% vs. 43.1%) while there was far less difference in mean specificities (92.4% vs. 97.7%). After detecting suspicious lesion, the radiologist has to decide what is the most accurate, fast, and cost-effective means of further work-up. The feasibility of FNAC and CNB in the diagnosis of breast lesions was compared in non-randomised, retrospective study of 580 (503 malignant) breast lesions of 572 patients. The absolute sensitivity for CNB was better than for FNAC, 96% (206/214) vs. 67% (194/289) (p < 0.0001). An additional needle biopsy or surgical biopsy was performed for 93 and 62 patients with FNAC, but for only 2 and 33 patients with CNB. The frequent need of supplement biopsies and unnecessary axillary operations due to false-positive findings made FNAC (294 ) more expensive than CNB (223 ), and because the advantage of quick analysis vanishes during the overall diagnostic and referral process, it is recommendable to use CNB as initial biopsy method.

Breath Testing by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Solvent Intoxication Diagnostics

Technical or contaminated ethanol products are sometimes ingested either accidentally or on purpose. Typical misused products are black-market liquor and automotive products, e.g., windshield washer fluids. In addition to less toxic solvents, these liquids may contain the deadly methanol. Symptoms of even lethal solvent poisoning are often non-specific at the early stage. The present series of studies was carried out to develop a method for solvent intoxication breath diagnostics to speed up the diagnosis procedure conventionally based on blood tests. Especially in the case of methanol ingestion, the analysis method should be sufficiently sensitive and accurate to determine the presence of even small amounts of methanol from the mixture of ethanol and other less-toxic components. In addition to the studies on the FT-IR method, the Dräger 7110 evidential breath analyzer was examined to determine its ability to reveal a coexisting toxic solvent. An industrial Fourier transform infrared analyzer was modified for breath testing. The sample cell fittings were widened and the cell size reduced in order to get an alveolar sample directly from a single exhalation. The performance and the feasibility of the Gasmet FT-IR analyzer were tested in clinical settings and in the laboratory. Actual human breath screening studies were carried out with healthy volunteers, inebriated homeless men, emergency room patients and methanol-intoxicated patients. A number of the breath analysis results were compared to blood test results in order to approximate the blood-breath relationship. In the laboratory experiments, the analytical performance of the Gasmet FT-IR analyzer and Dräger 7110 evidential breath analyzer was evaluated by means of artificial samples resembling exhaled breath. The investigations demonstrated that a successful breath ethanol analysis by Dräger 7110 evidential breath analyzer could exclude any significant methanol intoxication. In contrast, the device did not detect very high levels of acetone, 1-propanol and 2-propanol in simulated breath. The Dräger 7110 evidential breath ethanol analyzer was not equipped to recognize the interfering component. According to the studies the Gasmet FT-IR analyzer was adequately sensitive, selective and accurate for solvent intoxication diagnostics. In addition to diagnostics, the fast breath solvent analysis proved feasible for controlling the ethanol and methanol concentration during haemodialysis treatment. Because of the simplicity of the sampling and analysis procedure, non-laboratory personnel, such as police officers or social workers, could also operate the analyzer for screening purposes.

Mulibrey nanism : Clinical characteristics and pathophysiologic features of growth restriction, insulin resistance and tumour development

Background: Mulibrey nanism (MUL; Muscle-liver-brain-eye nanism; OMIM 253250) is an autosomal recessive growth disorder more prevalent in Finland than elsewhere in the world. Clinical characteristics include severe prenatal onset growth restriction, cardiopathy, multiple organ manifestations but no major neurological handicap. MUL is caused by mutations in the TRIM37 gene on chromosome 17q22-23, encoding a peroxisomal protein TRIM37 with ubiquitin E3-ligase activity. Nineteen different mutations have been detected, four of them present in the Finnish patients. Objective: This study aimed to characterize clinical and histopathological features of MUL in the national cohort of Finnish patients. Patients and methods: A total of 92 Finnish patients (age 0.7 to 77 years) participated in the clinical follow-up study. Patients hospital records and growth charts were reviewed. Physical, radiographic and laboratory examinations were performed according to a clinical protocol. Thirty patients (18 females) were treated with recombinant human GH for a median period of 5.7 years. Biopsies and autopsy samples were used for the histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses. Results: MUL patients were born small for gestational age (SGA) with immature craniofacial features after prenatal-onset growth restriction. They experienced a continuous deceleration in both height SDS and weight-for-height (WFH) postnatally. In infancy feeding difficulties and frequent pneumonias were common problems. At the time of diagnosis (median age 2.1 years) characteristic craniofacial, radiological and ocular features were the most constant findings. MUL patients showed a dramatic change in glucose metabolism with increasing age. While the children had low fasting glucose and insulin levels, 90% of the adults were insulin resistant, half had type 2 diabetes and an additional 42% showed impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). Seventy percent fulfilled the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Adult Treatment Panel III criteria for metabolic syndrome as adults. GH therapy improved pre-pubertal growth but had only minor impact on adult height (+5 cm). Interestingly, treated subjects were slimmer and had less frequent metabolic concerns as young adults. MUL patients displayed histologically a disturbed architecture with ectopic tissues and a high frequency of both benign and malignant tumours present in several internal organs. A total of 232 tumorous lesions were detected in our patient cohort. The majority of the tumours showed strong expression of endothelial cell marker CD34 as well as α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Fifteen of the tumours were malignant and seven of them (five Wilms tumours) occurred in the kidney. Conclusions: MUL patients present a distinct postnatal growth pattern. Short-term response of GH treatment is substantial but the long-term impact remains modest. Although MUL patients form a distinct clinical and diagnostic entity, their clinical findings vary considerably from infancy to adulthood. While failure to thrive dominates early life, MUL adults develop metabolic syndrome and have a tendency for malignancies and vascular lesions in several organs. This speaks for a central role of TRIM37 in regulation of key cellular functions, such as proliferation, migration, angiogenesis and insulin signalling.

Individualized immunosuppression after renal transplantation in childhood

Pediatric renal transplantation (TX) has evolved greatly during the past few decades, and today TX is considered the standard care for children with end-stage renal disease. In Finland, 191 children had received renal transplants by October 2007, and 42% of them have already reached adulthood. Improvements in treatment of end-stage renal disease, surgical techniques, intensive care medicine, and in immunosuppressive therapy have paved the way to the current highly successful outcomes of pediatric transplantation. In children, the transplanted graft should last for decades, and normal growth and development should be guaranteed. These objectives set considerable requirements in optimizing and fine-tuning the post-operative therapy. Careful optimization of immunosuppressive therapy is crucial in protecting the graft against rejection, but also in protecting the patient against adverse effects of the medication. In the present study, the results of a retrospective investigation into individualized dosing of immunosuppresive medication, based on pharmacokinetic profiles, therapeutic drug monitoring, graft function and histology studies, and glucocorticoid biological activity determinations, are reported. Subgroups of a total of 178 patients, who received renal transplants in 1988 2006 were included in the study. The mean age at TX was 6.5 years, and approximately 26% of the patients were <2 years of age. The most common diagnosis leading to renal TX was congenital nephrosis of the Finnish type (NPHS1). Pediatric patients in Finland receive standard triple immunosuppression consisting of cyclosporine A (CsA), methylprednisolone (MP) and azathioprine (AZA) after renal TX. Optimal dosing of these agents is important to prevent rejections and preserve graft function in one hand, and to avoid the potentially serious adverse effects on the other hand. CsA has a narrow therapeutic window and individually variable pharmacokinetics. Therapeutic monitoring of CsA is, therefore, mandatory. Traditionally, CsA monitoring has been based on pre-dose trough levels (C0), but recent pharmacokinetic and clinical studies have revealed that the immunosuppressive effect may be related to diurnal CsA exposure and blood CsA concentration 0-4 hours after dosing. The two-hour post-dose concentration (C2) has proved a reliable surrogate marker of CsA exposure. Individual starting doses of CsA were analyzed in 65 patients. A recommended dose based on a pre-TX pharmacokinetic study was calculated for each patient by the pre-TX protocol. The predicted dose was clearly higher in the youngest children than in the older ones (22.9±10.4 and 10.5±5.1 mg/kg/d in patients <2 and >8 years of age, respectively). The actually administered oral doses of CsA were collected for three weeks after TX and compared to the pharmacokinetically predicted dose. After the TX, dosing of CsA was adjusted according to clinical parameters and blood CsA trough concentration. The pharmacokinetically predicted dose and patient age were the two significant parameters explaining post-TX doses of CsA. Accordingly, young children received significantly higher oral doses of CsA than the older ones. The correlation to the actually administered doses after TX was best in those patients, who had a predicted dose clearly higher or lower (> ±25%) than the average in their age-group. Due to the great individual variation in pharmacokinetics standardized dosing of CsA (based on body mass or surface area) may not be adequate. Pre-Tx profiles are helpful in determining suitable initial CsA doses. CsA monitoring based on trough and C2 concentrations was analyzed in 47 patients, who received renal transplants in 2001 2006. C0, C2 and experienced acute rejections were collected during the post-TX hospitalization, and also three months after TX when the first protocol core biopsy was obtained. The patients who remained rejection free had slightly higher C2 concentrations, especially very early after TX. However, after the first two weeks also the trough level was higher in the rejection-free patients than in those with acute rejections. Three months after TX the trough level was higher in patients with normal histology than in those with rejection changes in the routine biopsy. Monitoring of both the trough level and C2 may thus be warranted to guarantee sufficient peak concentration and baseline immunosuppression on one hand and to avoid over-exposure on the other hand. Controlling of rejection in the early months after transplantation is crucial as it may contribute to the development of long-term allograft nephropathy. Recently, it has become evident that immunoactivation fulfilling the histological criteria of acute rejection is possible in a well functioning graft with no clinical sings or laboratory perturbations. The influence of treatment of subclinical rejection, diagnosed in 3-month protocol biopsy, to graft function and histology 18 months after TX was analyzed in 22 patients and compared to 35 historical control patients. The incidence of subclinical rejection at three months was 43%, and the patients received a standard rejection treatment (a course of increased MP) and/or increased baseline immunosuppression, depending on the severity of rejection and graft function. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) at 18 months was significantly better in the patients who were screened and treated for subclinical rejection in comparison to the historical patients (86.7±22.5 vs. 67.9±31.9 ml/min/1.73m2, respectively). The improvement was most remarkable in the youngest (<2 years) age group (94.1±11.0 vs. 67.9±26.8 ml/min/1.73m2). Histological findings of chronic allograft nephropathy were also more common in the historical patients in the 18-month protocol biopsy. All pediatric renal TX patients receive MP as a part of the baseline immunosuppression. Although the maintenance dose of MP is very low in the majority of the patients, the well-known steroid-related adverse affects are not uncommon. It has been shown in a previous study in Finnish pediatric TX patients that steroid exposure, measured as area under concentration-time curve (AUC), rather than the dose correlates with the adverse effects. In the present study, MP AUC was measured in sixteen stable maintenance patients, and a correlation with excess weight gain during 12 months after TX as well as with height deficit was found. A novel bioassay measuring the activation of glucocorticoid receptor dependent transcription cascade was also employed to assess the biological effect of MP. Glucocorticoid bioactivity was found to be related to the adverse effects, although the relationship was not as apparent as that with serum MP concentration. The findings in this study support individualized monitoring and adjustment of immunosuppression based on pharmacokinetics, graft function and histology. Pharmacokinetic profiles are helpful in estimating drug exposure and thus identifying the patients who might be at risk for excessive or insufficient immunosuppression. Individualized doses and monitoring of blood concentrations should definitely be employed with CsA, but possibly also with steroids. As an alternative to complete steroid withdrawal, individualized dosing based on drug exposure monitoring might help in avoiding the adverse effects. Early screening and treatment of subclinical immunoactivation is beneficial as it improves the prospects of good long-term graft function.

Serial Changes in Markers Measuring Coagulation, Fibrinolysis, and Vasoactivity in Patients with Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a heterogeneous disease in which outcome is influenced by many factors. The hemostatic system is activated in association with cerebral ischemia, and thus, markers measuring coagulation, fibrinolysis, and vasoactivity could be useful tools in clinical practice. We investigated whether repeated measurements of these markers reveal patterns that might help in evaluating IS patients, including the early diagnosis of stroke subtypes, in estimating prognosis and risk of recurrence, and in selecting a treatment for secondary prevention of stroke. Vasoconstrictor peptide endothelin-1 (ET-1), homocysteine (Hcy), indicators of thrombin formation and activation (prothrombin fragment 1+2/F1+2, thrombin-antithrombin complex/TAT), indicators of plasmin formation and fibrinolysis (tissue plasminogen activator/t-PA, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1/PAI-1, and D-dimer), and natural anticoagulants (antithrombin/AT, protein C/PC, and protein S/PS) were measured in 102 consecutive mild to moderate IS patients on four occasions: on admission and at 1 week, 1 month, and 3 months after stroke, and once in controls. All patients underwent neurological examination and blood sampling in the same session. Furthermore, 42 IS patients with heterozygous factor V Leiden mutation (FVLm) were selected from 740 IS patients without an obvious etiology, and evaluated in detail for specific clinical, laboratory, and radiological features. Measurements of ET-1 and Hcy levels did not disclose information that could aid in the diagnostic evaluation of IS patients. F1+2 level at 3 months after IS had a positive correlation with recurrence of thromboembolic events, and thus, may be used as a predictive marker of subsequent cerebral events. The D-dimer and AT levels on admission and 1 week after IS were strongly associated with stroke severity, outcome, and disability. The specific analysis of IS patients with FVLm more often revealed a positive family history of thrombosis, a higher prevalence of peripheral vascular disease, and multiple infarctions in brain images, most of which were `silent infarcts´. Results of this study support the view that IS patients with sustained activation of both the fibrinolytic and the coagulation systems and increased thrombin generation may have an unfavorable prognosis. The level of activation may reflect the ongoing thrombotic process and the extent of thrombosis. Changes in these markers could be useful in predicting prognosis of IS patients. A clear need exists for a randomized prospective study to determine whether a subgroup of IS patients with markers indicating activation of fibrinolytic and coagulation systems might benefit from more aggressive secondary prevention of IS.

Chlamydial infertility in women: Diagnosis, epidemiology and immune response

This project primarily focused on the development of a novel, non-invasive peptide-based ELISA to diagnose C. trachomatis-related infertility in women. In this study, an in silico approach was applied to identify and design novel peptide antigens that are specific to women with C. trachomatis-related infertility. The serological assay was developed such that it could potentially replace invasive techniques for early infertility investigation. The thesis further investigated the sero-prevalence of chlamydial infertility in women from a low-resource, high prevalence setting. In addition, the thesis also identified immune markers that were associated with the C. trachomatis-related infertility in women.

Occupational Rhinitis : Diagnosis and Health-related Quality of Life

Occupational rhinitis is mainly caused by work environment and not by stimuli encountered outside the workplace. It differs from rhinitis that is worsened by, but not mainly caused by, workplace exposures. Occupational rhinitis can develop in response to allergens, inhaled irritants, or corrosive gases. The thesis evaluated the use of challenge tests in occupational rhinitis diagnostics, studied the long-term health-related quality of life among allergic occupational rhinitis patients, and the allergens of wheat grain among occupational respiratory allergy patients. The diagnosed occupational rhinitis was mainly allergic rhinitis, which was caused by occupational agents, most commonly flours and animal allergens. The non-IgE-mediated rhinitis reactions were less frequent and caused more often asthma than rhinitis. Both nasal challenges and inhalation challenges were found to be safe tests. The inhalation challenge tests had considerably resource-intensive methodology. However, the evaluation of nasal symptoms and signs together with bronchial reactions saved time and expense compared with the organization of multiple individual challenges. The scoring criteria used matched well with the weighted amount of discharge ≥ 0.2 g and in most cases gave comparable results. The challenge tests are valuable tools when there is uncertainty whether the patient's exposure should be reduced or discontinued. It was found that continuing exposure decreases health-related quality of life among patients with allergic occupational rhinitis despite of rhinitis medications, still approximately ten years after the diagnosis. Health-related quality of life among occupational rhinitis patients without any longer occupational exposure was mainly similar than that of the healthy controls. This highlights the importance of the reduction and cessation of occupational exposure. To achieve this, 17% of occupational rhinitis patients had been re-educated. Alpha-amylase inhibitors, lipid transfer protein 2G, thaumatin -like protein, and peroxidase I were found to be relevant allergens in Finnish patients with occupational respiratory wheat allergy. Of these allergens, thaumatin-like protein and lipid transfer protein 2G were found as new allergens associated with baker's rhinitis and asthma. The knowledge of the new clinically relevant proteins can be used in the future in the development of better standardized diagnostic preparations.

Hanle-Zeeman redistribution matrix. I. Classical theory expressions in the laboratory frame

Polarized scattering in spectral lines is governed by a 4; 4 matrix that describes how the Stokes vector is scattered and redistributed in frequency and direction. Here we develop the theory for this redistribution matrix in the presence of magnetic fields of arbitrary strength and direction. This general magnetic field case is called the Hanle- Zeeman regime, since it covers both of the partially overlapping weak- and strong- field regimes in which the Hanle and Zeeman effects dominate the scattering polarization. In this general regime, the angle-frequency correlations that describe the so-called partial frequency redistribution (PRD) are intimately coupled to the polarization properties. We develop the theory for the PRD redistribution matrix in this general case and explore its detailed mathematical properties and symmetries for the case of a J = 0 -> 1 -> 0 scattering transition, which can be treated in terms of time-dependent classical oscillator theory. It is shown how the redistribution matrix can be expressed as a linear superposition of coherent and noncoherent parts, each of which contain the magnetic redistribution functions that resemble the well- known Hummer- type functions. We also show how the classical theory can be extended to treat atomic and molecular scattering transitions for any combinations of quantum numbers.

Temperature monitoring of nonanaesthetised patients in a cardiac catheterisation laboratory

Aim and objectives To identify the prevalence that temperature reduced by more than 1°C from pre to post-procedure in a sample of non-anaesthetised patients undergoing procedures in a cardiac catheterisation laboratory. Background Advances in medical technology are minimising the invasiveness of diagnostic tests and treatments for disease, which is correspondingly increasing the number of medical procedures performed without sedation or anaesthesia. Procedural areas in which medical procedures are performed without anaesthesia are typically kept at a cool temperature for staff comfort. As such, there is a need to inform nursing practices in regard to the thermal management of non-anaesthetised patients undergoing procedures in surgical or procedural environments. Design Single-site observational study Methods Patients were included if they had undergone an elective procedure without sedation or anaesthesia in a cardiac catheterisation laboratory. Ambient room temperature was maintained between 18°C and 20°C. Passive warming with heated cotton blankets was applied. Nurses measured body temperature and thermal comfort before and after 342 procedures. Results Mean change in temperature was -0.08°C (Standard deviation 0.43). The reduction in temperature was more than 1°C after 11 procedures (3.2%). One patient whose temperature had reduced more than 1°C after their procedure reported thermal discomfort. A total of 12 patients were observed to be shivering post-procedure (3.6%). No demographic or clinical characteristics were associated with reduction in temperature of more than 1°C from pre to post-procedure. Conclusions Significant reduction in body temperature was rare in our sample of non-anaesthetised patients. Relevance to clinical practice Similar results would likely be found in other procedural contexts during procedures conducted in settings with comparable room temperatures where passive warming can also be applied with limited skin exposure.