Ritarit ja samurait : Kaksi soturiperinnettä läntisissä historiallisissa vertailuissa

Soturit olivat keskeinen sosiaalinen ryhmä keskiajan läntisessä Euroopassa ja Meiji-kautta (1868-1912) edeltäneessä Japanissa. Japanin avauduttua 1800-luvun puolivaiheilla maan historiaa alettiin kirjoittaa eurooppalaisen mallin mukaan, ja soturiperinteiden rinnastaminen ja vertailu yleistyivät. Vertailun taustalla vaikuttivat käsitykset alueiden samankaltaisesta feodaalisesta historiasta. Feodalismi on säilynyt keskeisenä teemana vertailuissa ja Japanin-tutkimuksessa, vaikka keskustelu siitä onkin Euroopan keskiajantutkimuksessa pitkälti hiipunut. Myös Japanin-tutkimuksessa on viime aikoina alettu esittää kritiikkiä feodalismi-termin käyttöä, rinnastuksia ja jopa pelkkää Euroopan historiaan vertaamistakin kohtaan. Feodalismin ohella muita keskeisiä vertailuteemoja ovat Japanin modernisoituminen ja sodankäynnin teknologia. Ensimmäiset vertailut olivat etupäässä yksittäisten joskus hyvin ylimalkaisten rinnastusten hakemista. Myös systemaattisia sivilisaatiohistoriallisia vertailuja alettiin tehdä jo varhain. Japanin-tutkimuksen ensisijaiseksi vertailukohteeksi ovat kuitenkin nousseet Euroopan historian sijaan teoriat feodalismista. Tarkastelu keskittyy nykyisin lähinnä eurooppalaisten termien käyttökelpoisuuteen Japanin historiasta kirjoitettaessa. Japanin modernisoitumista käsittelevät vertailut sivuavat keskusteluita feodalismista, mutta sotureiden rooli jää niissä usein hyvin vähäiseksi. Sodankäynnin teknologiaan keskittyvät vertailut ovat ilmiönä varsin tuore, sillä japanilaisen ja eurooppalaisen sodankäynnin pääteknologiat ovat olleet ilmeisen erilaisia lukuunottamatta 1500-luvun jälkipuoliskoa ja 1600-luvun alkua sekä nykyaikaa. Uuden ajan alun Euroopan ja saman ajan Japanin sotateknologiset yhtäläisyydet rajoittuvat jalkaväen tuliaseiden käyttöönoton mukanaan tuomiin muutoksiin maasodankäynnissä ja linnoittamiseen. Merisodankäynnin ja tykistön kehitys oli alueilla erilaista. Ritareiden ja samuraiden historioissa vaikuttavat edellä mainitun varhaisten tuliaseiden aikakauden rinnalla yhtäläisimmiltä kehityskuluilta niin sanotut varhais- ja täysfeodaaliset kaudet. Näistä ensimmäisellä tarkoitetaan Euroopan karolinkivaltakunnan aikaa suhteessa Kamakura-bakufuun (1185-1333) Japanissa. Jälkimmäisellä viitataan puolestaan ensimmäisen vuosituhannen vaihteen tienoille ajoittuvasta murroksesta noin 1300-1400-luvulle ulottuvaan ajanjaksoon Euroopassa ja sisällissotien kauteen 1300-luvun lopulta 1600-luvun alkuun Japanissa. Soturiperinteiden historioissa lähimmin toisiaan vastaavat feodaaliset piirteet ovat sotureiden yhteiskunnallinen asema ja heidän arvomaailmansa. Ilmeisin ongelma Euroopan ja Japanin vertailemisessa on se, että Eurooppa on laajempi ja historialtaan monimuotoisempi kuin Japani. Kuitenkaan tätä mittakaavaongelmaa eikä muitakaan metodologisia kysymyksiä ole vertailuissa juurikaan pohdittu. Osasyynä tähän lienee se, että muutamaa poikkeusta lukuunottamatta vertailijoiden asiantuntemus on keskittynyt vain toisen soturiperinteen historiaan. Sotureiden historiat tarjoavat antoisan vertailuparin. Suurista yhtäläisyyksistä huolimatta ritareita ja samuraita ei tulisi summittaisesti samaistaa toisiinsa, vaan rinnastettaessa tulisi mieluummin käyttää yleisempää soturin käsitettä. Avainsanat: Bushi, feodalismi, Eurooppa - sotahistoria, Japani - historia, ritarit, samurait, soturit

Fishery biology and management of Protonibea diacanthus (Sciaenidae) aggregations in far Northern Cape York Peninsula waters

The sciaenid Protonibea diacanthus is a large, long-lived predatory fish of inshore northern Australian waters, which forms annual aggregations that are fished extensively by traditional (subsistence) and recreational fishers. There are now widespread concerns that the resource is being overexploited. Indigenous fishers of the Cape York Northern Peninsula Area (NPA) relate that large adult fish (up to 1500 mm total length (TL)) made up the bulk of the catch from the sciaenid aggregations until about 1994. In contrast, sexually mature P. diacanthus comprised only a small component (12 fish out of 270=4.4%) examined in a 1999–2000 sampling programme that was biased towards the largest individuals available. At 790 mm TL, the minimum size at first maturity for female P. diacanthus in this study is much smaller than the 920 mm TL reported previously in Queensland waters. Developing ovaries were observed in specimens sampled from sciaenid aggregations which formed in NPA waters between May and September 2000. However, no fish with ripe or spent gonads were found in the study, so the current timing and location of the spawning season for P. diacanthus in the region remain unknown. Food items observed in the analysis of the diet of P. diacanthus from the NPA included a variety of teleosts and invertebrates. The range of animal taxa represented in the prey items support the description of an ‘opportunistic predator’ attributed to the species. In our sampling, the stomach contents of fish caught during the time of the aggregation events did not differ from those observed at other times of the year. A total of 114 P. diacanthus were tagged and released at aggregation sites during the study period, and 3 fish (2.6%) were subsequently recaptured. The low rate of tag returns from the wild stock tagging programme, both in this study (2.6%) and from recreational fisher tag/release programmes for the sciaenid elsewhere in Queensland (6.5%), were not explained by tag loss nor mortality, given the high retention rate of tags and the zero mortality seen in tank trials. In response to the biological findings from this study, indigenous community councils of the NPA imposed a 2-year fishing moratorium for P. diacanthus. Surveys at aggregation sites in 2002 and 2003 established that much larger fish (mean size 103.5 cm TL) were again present on the grounds, albeit in very low numbers. These recent preliminary results highlight the critical need for continued monitoring and management of the P. diacanthus fishery in the NPA, if prospects for resource recovery are to be realised. The NPA initiative has provided a rare opportunity to negotiate a co-management strategy, based on scientific data and traditional knowledge, for the recovery of a cultural and economically significant fished resource.

Meän tapa puhua : Tornionlaakso pellolaisnuorten subjektiivisena paikkana ja murrealueena

This folk linguistic and human geographic study deals with dialect awareness, dialect use and place attachment. The study discusses theoretical and methodological issues current in sociolinguistics suggesting that the study of attitudes should be regarded as a core area in the study of variation and change. Furthermore, it is suggested that instead of putting effort into improving mental mapping methodology (adopted into folk linguistics from behavioural geography of the 1960 s), the more up-to-date thinking of space in geography should be adopted. The region and the dialect are treated as perceptual constructs in the study. The dialect perceptions of high school seniors in the Finnish Tornio Valley are examined trough a triangulation method involving a questionnaire, interviews and dialect recognition test as the research methods. The h in non-initial syllables (e.g. lähethä(ä)n, saunhaan ~ sauhnaan let s go into sauna ) turns out, expectedly, as the most salient feature in the dialect awareness of the locals and in terms of local identity construction. This feature is no longer heard in most of the present dialects of Finnish but is still thriving in the Tornio Valley in the cross-border dialect area. The metathetic variant (saunhaan > sauhnaan into sauna , käymhään > käyhmään to go ) is a characteristic feature of the Tornio Valley dialect. However, individual differences have long been found in the use of the h. This study challenges the essentialist variationist view of social categories (gender) by analysing variation from a quantitative but emic and human geographic point of view. The study shows that the variation of the h is statistically significantly patterned in terms of the degree of feeling of insideness vs. outsideness. New light is shed on the gender differences found in earlier sociolinguistic studies: differences in dialect use between and inside gender groups are illuminated by the fact that, in this case, it is young women who are generally less attached to the local community than young men, but this does not hold for all the individuals. The ideological motivation for preservation of the h seems to be based on the imagined community of Tornio Valley covering both the Swedish and the Finnish valley area. The general image of the dialect area and it s speakers, the shared cognitive dialect boundaries of the locals and the particularly deep level of awaress of the linguistic variation of the h are notable resources of the Tornio valley identity. Hyperdialectic forms analogical to the most frequently attested metathetic forms are found in the interview data, predicting that in this dialect the h will be maintained also in the future.

Hydrothermal phase equilibria in Ln2O3-H2O-CO2 systems : I. The lighter lanthanides

Phase diagrams for Nd2O3-H2O-CO2 and Gd2O3-H2O-CO2 systems at 1500 atm are given along with the results of selected runs in La, Sm and Eu systems. The stable phases in systems of La and Nd, are Ln(OH)CO3-B, Ln2O2CO3-II and LnOOH, in addition to the Ln(OH)3 phase at extremely low partial pressures of CO2 in the system. The systems become more and more complex with decreasing ionic radi and the number of stable carbonate phases increases. Ln2(CO3)3 · 3H2O orthorhombic (tengerate-like phase) is stable from Sm to Gd in addition to the other phases. The Gd(OH)CO3-A (ancylite-like phase) is hydrothermally stable at XCO2 greater-or-equal, slanted 0.5 while its hexagonal polymorph, Gd(OH)CO3-B is stable at low partial pressures of CO2 in the system.

Graze to grain - measuring and modelling the effects of grazed pasture leys on soil nitrogen and sorghum yield on a Vertosol soil in the Australian subtropics

Highly productive sown pasture systems can result in high growth rates of beef cattle and lead to increases in soil nitrogen and the production of subsequent crops. The nitrogen dynamics and growth of grain sorghum following grazed annual legume leys or a grass pasture were investigated in a no-till system in the South Burnett district of Queensland. Two years of the tropical legumes Macrotyloma daltonii and Vigna trilobata (both self regenerating annual legumes) and Lablab purpureus (a resown annual legume) resulted in soil nitrate N (0-0.9 m depth), at sorghum sowing, ranging from 35 to 86 kg/ha compared with 4 kg/ha after pure grass pastures. Average grain sorghum production in the 4 cropping seasons following the grazed legume leys ranged from 2651 to 4012 kg/ha. Following the grass pasture, grain sorghum production in the first and second year was < 1900 kg/ha and by the third year grain yield was comparable to the legume systems. Simulation studies utilising the farming systems model APSIM indicated that the soil N and water dynamics following 2-year ley phases could be closely represented over 4 years and the prediction of sorghum growth during this time was reasonable. In simulated unfertilised sorghum crops grown from 1954 to 2004, grain yield did not exceed 1500 kg/ha in 50% of seasons following a grass pasture, while following 2-year legume leys, grain exceeded 3000 kg/ha in 80% of seasons. It was concluded that mixed farming systems that utilise short term legume-based pastures for beef production in rotation with crop production enterprises can be highly productive.

Diel variation in mangrove fish abundances and trophic guilds of northeastern Australian estuaries with a proposed trophodynamic model

Diel activity patterns of tropical fish assemblages in turbid, mangrove-dominated estuaries remain largely undocumented, leading to uncertainty about ecological processes in these systems. To capture active fishes by day and night, gill nets were set perpendicular to mangrove shorelines, in six northeastern Australian estuaries during 13 bimonthly trips. Fish were sampled with eight large mesh (102-151 mm) nets, set for 6 hrs (1500-2100), and checked hourly (1146 day, 635 dusk, 872 night checks). Four smaller mesh (19-51 mm) nets were also set for 1 hr before and after sunset (77 day, 78 night checks). Of 157 total species, 22 were netted exclusively before sunset and 47 exclusively after sunset. All of the top 26 species were present both day and night, but of these, 46% were primarily nocturnal (diel index > 0.65). An average of 77.2 fish hr−1 were netted by day vs 171.4 by night. Within the 400 km coastal region, assemblages differed between two northern wave-dominated (WD) estuaries and four southern tide-dominated ('I'D) estuaries. In all six estuaries Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790) dominated night assemblages. In 'I'D estuaries, night assemblages were also dominated by Thryssa hamiltoni Gray, 1835 and Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804); while in WD estuaries Herklotsichthys castelnaui (Ogilby, 1897), Leiognathus equulus (Forsskål, 1775), and Megalops cyprinoids (Broussonet, 1782) were dominant at night. Nocturnal species included planktivores and carnivores, while daytime assemblages were dominated by detritivores (Mugillidae). Higher night catch rates are attributed to increased activity by mobile fishes moving from mangrove to adjacent habitats to forage, especially immediately post-sunset. Although day-night diets and forage resources have yet to be compared in mangrove systems, previously unrecognized trophic relationships involving variation in diel activity among important fishery species (Centropomidae, polynemidae, Carangidae) and their prey may be key ecological processes in these tropical mangrove estuaries. A proposed hypothesis explaining diel variation in mangrove fish assemblages of tropical estuaries is presented through a conceptual model.

Language in Acquisition : Early Lexical Development and Associations between Lexicon and Grammar Findings from Full-Term and Very-Low-Birth-Weight Finnish Children

The aim was to analyse the growth and compositional development of the receptive and expressive lexicons between the ages 0,9 and 2;0 in the full-term (FT) and the very-low-birth-weight (VLBW) children who are acquiring Finnish. The associations between the expressive lexicon and grammar at 1;6 and 2;0 in the FT children were also studied. In addition, the language skills of the VLBW children at 2;0 were analysed, as well as the predictive value of early lexicon to the later language performance. Four groups took part in the studies: the longitudinal (N = 35) and cross-sectional (N = 146) samples of the FT children, and the longitudinal (N = 32) and cross-sectional (N = 66) samples of VLBW children. The data was gathered by applying of the structured parental rating method (the Finnish version of the Communicative Development Inventory), through analysis of the children´s spontaneous speech and by administering a a formal test (Reynell Developmental Language Scales). The FT children acquired their receptive lexicons earlier, at a faster rate and with larger individual variation than their expressive lexicons. The acquisition rate of the expressive lexicon increased from slow to faster in most children (91%). Highly parallel developmental paths for lexical semantic categories were detected in the receptive and expressive lexicons of the Finnish children when they were analysed in relation to the growth of the lexicon size, as described in the literature for children acquiring other languages. The emergence of grammar was closely associated with expressive lexical growth. The VLBW children acquired their receptive lexicons at a slower rate and had weaker language skills at 2;0 than the full-term children. The compositional development of both lexicons happened at a slower rate in the VLBW children when compared to the FT controls. However, when the compositional development was analysed in relation to the growth of lexicon size, this development occurred qualitatively in a nearly parallel manner in the VLBW children as in the FT children. Early receptive and expressive lexicon sizes were significantly associated with later language skills in both groups. The effect of the background variables (gender, length of the mother s basic education, birth weight) on the language development in the FT and the VLBW children differed. The results provide new information of early language acquisition by the Finnish FT and VLBW children. The results support the view that the early acquisition of the semantic lexical categories is related to lexicon growth. The current findings also propose that the early grammatical acquisition is closely related to the growth of expressive vocabulary size. The language development of the VLBW children should be followed in clinical work.

Aivojen jännitevasteiden rekisteröinti useaan äänen piirteeseen yhdellä mittauskerralla terveillä musiikkileikkikoulua käyvillä kaksivuotiailla

The early detection of hearing deficits is important to a child's development. However, examining small children with behavioural methods is often difficult. Research with ERPs (event-related potentials), recorded with EEG (electroencephalography), does not require attention or action from the child. Especially in children's ERP research, it is essential that the duration of a recording session is not too long. A new, faster optimum paradigm has been developed to record MMN (mismatch negativity), where ERPs to several sound features can be recorded in one recording session. This substantially shortens the time required for the experiment. So far, the new paradigm has been used in adult and school-aged children research. This study examines if MMN, LDN (late discriminative negativity) and P3a components can be recorded in two-year-olds with the new paradigm. The standard stimulus (p=0.50) was an 80 dB harmonic tone consisting of three harmonic frequencies (500 Hz, 1000 Hz and 1500 Hz) with a duration of 200 ms. The loudness deviants (p=0.067) were at a level of +6 dB or -6 dB compared to the standards. The frequency deviants (p=0.112) had a fundamental frequency of 550 or 454.4 Hz (small deviation), 625 or 400 Hz (medium deviation) or 750 or 333.3 Hz (large deviation). The duration deviants (p=0.112) had a duration of 175 ms (small deviation), 150 ms (medium deviation) or 100 ms (large deviation). The direction deviants (p=0.067) were presented from the left or right loudspeaker only. The gap deviant (p=0.067) included a 5-ms silent gap in the middle of the sound. Altogether 17 children participated in the experiment, of whom the data of 12 children was used in the analysis. ERP components were observed for all deviant types. The MMN was significant for duration and gap deviants. The LDN was significant for the large duration deviant and all other deviant types. No significant P3a was observed. These results indicate that the optimum paradigm can be used with two-year-olds. With this paradigm, data on several sound features can be recorded in a shorter time than with the previous paradigms used in ERP research.

Can feral pig harvesting and co-ordinated control reduce damage to grain crops?

Commercial and recreational harvesting of pigs is often encouraged by pest managers because it is essentially a ‘free’ reduction in pest density. However, the reduction in numbers may provide minimal damage mitigation and may be inappropriately allocated in space and time. Additionally, more effective control (e.g. baiting) may not occur because of the incorrect perception that harvesting is effective or because pigs are valued for recreational use.

Structure of a peptide oxazolone: 2-(1'-benzyloxycarbonylamino-1'-methylethyl)-4,4-dimethyl-5-oxazolone

C16H20N204, monoclinic, P21, a = 6.270 (1),b= 11.119(3),c= ll.640(4)A, fl= 100.7 (2)°,Dm = 1-27 (flotation), Dc = 1-26 Mg m -3, Z = 2. The structure has been refined to a final R value of 0.041 for 1584 independent counter-measured reflections. The oxazolone ring in the molecule is nearly planar. The exocyclic O atom is 0.065 A out of the plane defined by the other four atoms in the ring belonging to the lactone group. The difference in length between the two adjacent C-O bonds in the ring is small, but significant. The crystal structure is stabilized by van der Waals interactions and a N--H... N hydrogen bond.

Response of an invasive liana to simulated herbivory: implications for its biological control

Pre-release evaluation of the efficacy of biological control agents is often not possible in the case of many invasive species targeted for biocontrol. In such circumstances simulating herbivory could yield significant insights into plant response to damage, thereby improving the efficiency of agent prioritisation, increasing the chances of regulating the performance of invasive plants through herbivory and minimising potential risks posed by release of multiple herbivores. We adopted this approach to understand the weaknesses herbivores could exploit, to manage the invasive liana, Macfadyena unguis-cati. We simulated herbivory by damaging the leaves, stem, root and tuber of the plant, in isolation and in combination. We also applied these treatments at multiple frequencies. Plant response in terms of biomass allocation showed that at least two severe defoliation treatments were required to diminish this liana's climbing habit and reduce its allocation to belowground tuber reserves. Belowground damage appears to have negligible effect on the plant's biomass production and tuber damage appears to trigger a compensatory response. Plant response to combinations of different types of damage did not differ significantly to that from leaf damage. This suggests that specialist herbivores in the leaf-feeding guild capable of removing over 50% of the leaf tissue may be desirable in the biological control of this invasive species.

Polychaete-assisted sand filters

The objective of this study was to investigate the productivity and functionality of sand filters stocked with marine worms for wastewater treatment at mariculture facilities. Medium bedding sand which is commonly available in coastal sedimentary deposits and nereidid polychaetes (Perinereis nuntia and P. helleri) from Moreton Bay in southeast Queensland were combined and studied in down-flow sand filtration beds. This combination appears to provide a new option for brackish wastewater treatment whereby the activities of the worms help to prevent sand filters from blocking with organic debris and their biomass offers a valuable by-product. Phytoplankton-rich pond waters percolating through sand-worm beds were reliably treated in several useful ways: suspended solids and chlorophyll a levels were consistently reduced by >50% by the process, and nutrients were converted into bio-available dissolved forms. Dissolved oxygen, redox and pH levels were also lowered significantly by the process. Water treatment rates of approx 1500 L m-2 d-1 were routinely achieved. P. nuntia appeared more suitable than P. helleri for stocking directly into sand filtration beds as nectochaetes, but generally exhibited slower growth. Survival and growth were influenced by stocking density. Sand-filter beds stocked with juvenile worms and fed only with eutrophic pond water demonstrated polychaete production capacities in the order of 300-400 g m-2 (eg. P. helleri: 328 g m-2 in 16 weeks). These results show how nereidid polychaetes can be reliably produced within simple, low-maintenance sand filters, and provide data necessary for the functional integration of this novel wastewater treatment system into contemporary seafood farming systems.

Evaluating the efficacy of the EZ-Ject herbicide system in Queensland, Australia

The EZ-Ject herbicide system was evaluated as a stem injection method for controlling woody weeds in a range of situations where traditional chemical application methods have limited scope. The equipment was trialled on three Queensland weed species; pond apple (Annona glabra), velvety tree pear (Opuntia tomentosa) and yellow oleander (Cascabela thevetia); at five different cartridge densities (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4) and with two herbicides (glyphosate and imazapyr). Cartridges filled with imazapyr were significantly more effective at controlling the three woody weed species than those filled with glyphosate. Injecting plants with three imazapyr cartridges resulted in plant kills ranging from 93 to 100%, compared with glyphosate kills of 17 to 100%. Pond apple was the most susceptible species, requiring one imazapyr cartridge or two glyphosate cartridges to kill 97 and 92% of the treated plants. Plant mortality increased as the number of cartridges injected increased. Mortality did not differ significantly for treatments receiving three and four imazapyr cartridges, as these cartridge densities met the criterion of injecting one cartridge per 10-cm basal circumference, a criterion recommended by the manufacturers for treating large plants (>6.35 cm in diameter at breast height). The cost of treating a weed infestation of 1500 plants ha–1 with three cartridges per tree is $1070 ha–1, with labour costs accounting for 16% of the total. The high chemical costs would preclude this technique from broad-scale use, but the method could have application for treating woody weeds in sensitive, high conservation areas.

Nutrient loss and water quality under extensive grazing in the upper Burdekin river catchment, North Queensland

Increased sediment and nutrient losses resulting from unsustainable grazing management in the Burdekin River catchment are major threats to water quality in the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon. To test the effects of grazing management on soil and nutrient loss, five 1 ha mini-catchments were established in 1999 under different grazing strategies on a sedimentary landscape near Charters Towers. Reference samples were also collected from watercourses in the Burdekin catchment during major flow events.Soil and nutrient loss were relatively low across all grazing strategies due to a combination of good cover, low slope and low rainfall intensities. Total soil loss varied from 3 to 20 kg haˉ¹ per event while losses of N and P ranged from 10 to 1900 g haˉ¹ and from 1 to 71 g haˉ¹ per event respectively. Water quality of runoff was considered moderate across all strategies with relatively low levels of total suspended sediment (range: 8-1409 mg lˉ¹), total N (range: 101-4000 ug lˉ¹) and total P (range: 14-609 ug lˉ¹). However, treatment differences are likely to emerge with time as the impacts of the different grazing strategies on land condition become more apparent.Samples collected opportunistically from rivers and creeks during flow events displayed significantly higher levels of total suspended sediment (range: 10-6010 mg lˉ¹), total N (range: 650-6350 ug lˉ¹) and total P (range: 50-1500 ug lˉ¹) than those collected at the grazing trial. These differences can largely be attributed to variation in slope, geology and cover between the grazing trial and different catchments. In particular, watercourses draining hillier, grano-diorite landscapes with low cover had markedly higher sediment and nutrient loads compared to those draining flatter, sedimentary landscapes.These preliminary data suggest that on relatively flat, sedimentary landscapes, extensive cattle grazing is compatible with achieving water quality targets, provided high levels of ground cover are maintained. In contrast, sediment and nutrient loss under grazing on more erodable land types is cause for serious concern. Long-term empirical research and monitoring will be essential to quantify the impacts of changed land management on water quality in the spatially and temporally variable Burdekin River catchment.