Massenspektrometrische Wasserdampfmessung in der oberen Troposphäre und unteren Stratosphäre

Diese Arbeit beschreibt die Entwicklung des flugzeuggetragenen Atmosphärischen Ionisations-Massenspektrometers AIMS-H2O zur Messung von Wasserdampf in der oberen Troposphäre und unteren Stratosphäre (UTLS) und erste Flugzeugmessungen mit dem Instrument. Wasserdampf beeinflusst das Klima in der UTLS aufgrund seiner Strahlungseigenschaften und agiert als wichtiger Parameter bei der Bildung von Zirruswolken und Kondensstreifen. Deshalb sind genaue Wasserdampfmessungen für das Verständnis vieler atmosphärischer Prozesse unerlässlich. Instrumentenvergleiche wie sie im SPARC Report No. 2 und dem Bericht der AUQAVIT Kampagne zusammengefasst sind, haben gezeigt, dass große Abweichungen zwischen einzelnen Methoden und Instrumenten bestehen. Diese Unsicherheiten limitieren das Verständnis des Einflusses von Wasserdampf auf die Dynamik und die Strahlungseigenschaften in der UTLS. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Entwicklung einer neuen Messmethode für Wasserdampf mit dem Massenspektrometer AIMS-H2O ist deshalb auf die genaue Messung niedriger Wasserdampfkonzentrationen in der UTLS fokussiert. Mit AIMS H2O wird Umgebungsluft in einer neu entwickelten Gasentladungsquelle ionisiert. Durch eine Reihe von Ionen-Molekül-Reaktionen entstehen H3O+(H2O) und H3O+(H2O)2 Ionen. Diese Ionen werden genutzt, um die Wasserdampfkonzentration in der Atmosphäre zu bestimmen. Um die erforderliche hohe Genauigkeit zu erzielen, wird AIMS H2O im Flug kalibriert. In dem zu diesem Zweck aufgebauten Kalibrationsmodul wird die katalytische Reaktion von Wasserstoff und Sauerstoff auf einer Platinoberfläche genutzt, um definierte Wasserdampfkonzentrationen für die Kalibration im Flug zu erzeugen. Bei ersten Messungen auf der Falcon während der Kampagne CONCERT 2011 konnte dabei eine Genauigkeit von 8 bis 15% für die Messung der Wasserdampfkonzentration in einem Messbereich von 0,5 bis 250 ppmv erreicht werden. Die Messfrequenz betrug 4 Hz, was einer räumlichen Auflösung von etwa 50 m entspricht. Der Vergleich der Messung des Massenspektrometers mit dem Laserhygrometer Waran zeigt eine sehr gute Übereinstimmung im Rahmen der Unsicherheiten. Anhand zweier Fallstudien werden die Messungen von AIMS H2O während CONCERT 2011 detailliert analysiert. In der ersten Studie werden zwei Flüge in eine stratosphärische Intrusion über Nordeuropa untersucht. In dieser Situation wurde stratosphärische Luft bis hinunter auf 6 km Höhe transportiert und war dadurch mit der Falcon erreichbar. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass AIMS-H2O sehr gut für die genaue Messung niedriger Wasserdampfkonzentrationen, in diesem Fall bis etwa 3,5 ppmv, geeignet ist. Der Vergleich der Messung mit Analysen des ECMWF Integrated Forecast Systems zeigt eine gute Übereinstimmung der gemessenen Wasserdampfstrukturen mit der dynamischen Tropopause. Unterschiede tauchen dagegen beim Vergleich der Wasserdampfkonzentrationen in der unteren Stratosphäre auf. Hier prognostiziert das Modell deutlich höhere Feuchten. Die zweite Fallstudie beschäftigt sich mit der Verteilung der relativen Feuchte in jungen Kondensstreifen im Vergleich zu ihrer direkten Umgebung. Dabei wurde für drei Messsequenzen im Abgasstrahl von Flugzeugen beobachtet, dass die relative Feuchte innerhalb des Kondensstreifens im Vergleich zur Umgebung sowohl bei unter- als auch übersättigten Umgebungsbedingungen in Richtung Sättigung verschoben ist. Die hohe Anzahl an Eispartikeln und die damit verbundene große Eisoberfläche in jungen Kondensstreifen führt also zu einer schnellen Relaxation von Gasphase und Eis in Richtung Gleichgewicht. In der Zukunft soll AIMS-H2O auch auf HALO für die genaue Messung von Wasserdampf bei ML-CIRRUS und weiteren Kampagnen eingesetzt werden.

Suche nach Dunkler Materie in Galaxien und Galaxienhaufen mit dem Neutrinoteleskop IceCube

Trotz zahlreicher Hinweise auf die Existenz von Dunkler Materie, konnten entsprechende Teilchen bisher nicht nachgewiesen werden. Eine große Anzahl an Experimenten wird durchgeführt, um die Eigenschaften möglicher Kandidatenteilchen zu untersuchen. Eine Strategie ist die Suche nach einem Neutrinosignal aus den Annihilationen von schwach wechselwirkenden massiven Teilchen (WIMPs) in Regionen mit hoher Dichte von Dunkler Materie. Mögliche Zielobjekte dieser Suchen sind die Erde, die Sonne, das Zentrum und der Halo der Milchstraße sowie entfernte Objekte, die einen hohen Anteil Dunkler Materie aufweisen.In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die erste Suche nach einem Neutrinosignal von Zwerggalaxien, größeren Galaxien und Galaxienhaufen beschrieben. Da kein Signal nachgewiesen wurde, konnten obere Grenzen auf den Annihilationsquerschnitt von WIMPs gesetzt werden. Die stärksten Grenzen wurden aus der Beobachtung des Virgo-Haufens unter der Annahme einer großen Signalverstärkung durch Unterstrukturen in der Dichteverteilung abgeleitet. Für WIMP-Massen oberhalb von einigen TeV ist das Ergebnis vergleichbar mit Grenzen, die aus der Suche mit Gammateleskopen abgeleitet wurden. Für den direkten Annihilationskanal in zwei Neutrinos konnte der Wirkungsquerschnitt stärker eingeschränkt werden, als in bisherigen Analysen.

Non-thermal properties of two galaxy filament candidates from JVLA observations

Large-scale structures can be considered an interesting and useful "laboratory" to better investigate the Universe; in particular the filaments connecting clusters and superclusters of galaxies can be a powerful tool for this intent, since they are not virialised systems yet. The large structures in the Universe have been studied in different bands, in particular the present work takes into consideration the emission in the radio band. In the last years both compact and diffuse radio emission have been detected, revealing to be associated to single objects and clusters of galaxies respectively. The detection of these sources is important, because the radiation process is the synchrotron emission, which in turn is linked to the presence of a magnetic field: therefore studying these radio sources can help in investigating the magnetic field which permeates different portions of space. Furthermore, radio emission in optical filaments have been detected recently, opening new chances to further improve the understanding of structure formation. Filaments can be seen as the net which links clusters and superclusters. This work was made with the aim of investigating non-thermal properties in low-density regions, looking for possible filaments associated to the diffuse emission. The analysed sources are 0917+75, which is located at a redshift z = 0.125, and the double cluster system A399-A401, positioned at z = 0.071806 and z = 0.073664 respectively. Data were taken from VLA/JVLA observations, and reduced and calibrated with the package AIPS, following the standard procedure. Isocountour and polarisation maps were yielded, allowing to derive the main physical properties. Unfortunately, because of a low quality data for A399-A401, it was not possible to see any radio halo or bridge.

Connection between x-ray and radio properties of cool-core galaxy clusters hosting radio mini-halos

Gli ammassi di galassie sono gli oggetti gravitazionalmente legati più grandi dell’Universo. Questi emettono principalmente in banda X tramite bremsstrahlung. Una frazione mostra anche emissione radio diffusa da parte di elettroni relativistici che spiraleggiano nel campo magnetico. Si possono classificare tre tipi di emissione: alon, relitti e mini-aloni radio (MH). I MH sono sorgenti radio su scale di ≥ 200 – 500 kpc, osservate al centro di ammassi caratterizzati dalla presenze di cool-core (CC). L’origine dei MH non è ancora chiara. Gli elettroni relativistici che emettono in banda radio hanno tempi di vita radiativi di molto inferiori a quelli necessari per diffondere sulle scale dell’emissione diffusa. Quindi non sono semplicemente iniettati dalle galassie presenti negli ammassi ed è necessario un meccanismo di accelerazione “in-situ” nell’ICM. I MH testimoniano la presenza di meccanismi che canalizzano parte del budget energetico disponibile nei CC nell’ICM.Quindi lo studio è importante per comprendere la fisica dell’ICM e l’interazione fra le componenti non termiche e termiche. I MH si formano attraverso la riaccelerazione delle particelle relativistiche ad opera della turbolenza del gas. L’origine di questa turbolenza tuttavia non è ancora ben compresa. Gli ammassi CC sono caratterizzati da un picco della brillanza X nelle regioni centrali e da un drop della temperatura verso il centro accompagnata da aumento della densità del gas. Si ritiene che questo sia dovuto al raffreddamento del gas che quindi fluisce nelle zone centrali. Recenti osservazioni in X risultan inconsistenti con il modello classico di CF, suggerendo la presenza di una sorgente di riscaldamento del gas su scale del core degli ammassi. Recentemente Zhuravleva (2014) hanno mostrato che il riscaldamento dovuto alla turbolenza prodotta dall'AGN centrale è in grado di bilanciare il processo di raffreddamento. Abbiamo assunto che la turbolenza responsabile del riscaldamento del gas è anche responsabile dell’accelerazione delle particelle nei MH. Nell’ambito di questo scenario ci si aspetta una correlazione tra la potenza del cooling flow, PCF, che è una misura del tasso di energia emessa dal gas che raffredda nei CC, e la luminosità radio, che è una frazione dell’energia della turbolenza che è canalizzata nell’accelerazione delle particelle. In questo lavoro di tesi abbiamo utilizzato il più grande campione disponibile di MH, allo scopo di studiare la connessione fra le proprietà dei MH e quelle del gas termico nei core degli ammassi che li ospitano. Abbiamo analizzato i dati di 21 ammassi e ricavato i parametri fisici all’interno del raggio di cooling e del MH. Abbiamo ricavato la correlazione fra luminosità radio, e PCF. Abbiamo trovato che le due quantità correlano in modo quasi-lineare confermando i risultati precedenti. Tale correlazione suggerisce uno stretto legame fra le proprietà del gas nei CC e l’origine dei MH.

Galactic fountain flows in high-resolution hydrodynamical simulations of galaxy disks

Feedback from the most massive components of a young stellar cluster deeply affects the surrounding ISM driving an expanding over-pressured hot gas cavity in it. In spiral galaxies these structures may have sufficient energy to break the disk and eject large amount of material into the halo. The cycling of this gas, which eventually will fall back onto the disk, is known as galactic fountains. We aim at better understanding the dynamics of such fountain flow in a Galactic context, frame the problem in a more dynamic environment possibly learning about its connection and regulation to the local driving mechanism and understand its role as a metal diffusion channel. The interaction of the fountain with a hot corona is hereby analyzed, trying to understand the properties and evolution of the extraplanar material. We perform high resolution hydrodynamical simulations with the moving-mesh code AREPO to model the multi-phase ISM of a Milky Way type galaxy. A non-equilibrium chemical network is included to self consistently follow the evolution of the main coolants of the ISM. Spiral arm perturbations in the potential are considered so that large molecular gas structures are able to dynamically form here, self shielded from the interstellar radiation field. We model the effect of SN feedback from a new-born stellar cluster inside such a giant molecular cloud, as the driving force of the fountain. Passive Lagrangian tracer particles are used in conjunction to the SN energy deposition to model and study diffusion of freshly synthesized metals. We find that both interactions with hot coronal gas and local ISM properties and motions are equally important in shaping the fountain. We notice a bimodal morphology where most of the ejected gas is in a cold $10^4$ K clumpy state while the majority of the affected volume is occupied by a hot diffuse medium. While only about 20\% of the produced metals stay local, most of them quickly diffuse through this hot regime to great scales.

Increasing echogenicity of diffuse circumferential thickening ("macaroni sign") of the carotid artery wall with decreasing inflammatory activity of takayasu arteritis

We report a case of sonographic follow-up showing brightening of the diffuse circumferential thickening (halo) of the carotid artery wall (the so-called "macaroni sign") in a patient with decreasing inflammatory activity of Takayasu arteritis over a 6-month period. Sonographic follow-up in patients with Takayasu arteritis may be a useful complementary tool for evaluation of inflammatory activity. Besides a reduction of halo diameter, an increase in wall echogenicity appears to be a sign of decreasing inflammation.

Dystonic movement disorders and spinal degenerative disease

The occurrence of degenerative spinal disease subsequent to dystonic movement disorders has been neglected and has received more attention only recently. Spinal surgery is challenging with regard to continuous mechanical stress when treatment of the underlying movement disorder is insufficient. To characterize better the particular features of degenerative spinal disease in patients with dystonia and to analyze operative strategies, we reviewed the available published data. Epidemiologic studies reveal that degenerative spinal disorders in patients with dystonia and choreoathetosis occur much earlier than in the physiological aging process. Dystonic movement disorders more often affect the spine at higher cervical levels (C(2-5)), in contrast to spinal degeneration with age which manifests more frequently at the middle and lower cervical spine (C(5-7)). Degenerative changes of the cervical spine are more likely to occur on the side where the chin is rotated or tilted to. Various operative approaches for treatment of spinal pathologies have been advocated in patients with dystonic movement disorders. The available data do not allow making firm statements regarding the superiority of one approach over the other. Posterior approaches were first used for decompression, but additional anterior fusion became necessary in many instances. Anterior approaches with or without instrumented fusion yielded more favorable results, but drawbacks are pseudarthrosis and adjacent-level disease. Parallel to the development of posterior fusion techniques, circumferential surgery was suggested to provide a maximum degree of cord decompression and a higher fusion rate. Perioperative local injections of botulinum toxin were used initially to enhance patient comfort with halo immobilization, but they are also applied in patients without external fixation nowadays. Treatment algorithms directed at the underlying movement disorder itself, taking advantage of new techniques of functional neurosurgery, combined with spinal surgery have recently been introduced and show promising results.

Pupil phase apodization for achromatic imaging of extra-solar planets

Direct imaging of extra-solar planets in the visible and infrared region has generated great interest among scientists and the general public as well. However, this is a challenging problem. Diffculties of detecting a planet (faint source) are caused, mostly, by two factors: sidelobes caused by starlight diffraction from the edge of the pupil and the randomly scattered starlight caused by the phase errors from the imperfections in the optical system. While the latter diffculty can be corrected by high density active deformable mirrors with advanced phase sensing and control technology, the optimized strategy for suppressing the diffraction sidelobes is still an open question. In this thesis, I present a new approach to the sidelobe reduction problem: pupil phase apodization. It is based on a discovery that an anti-symmetric spatial phase modulation pattern imposed over a pupil or a relay plane causes diffracted starlight suppression sufficient for imaging of extra-solar planets. Numerical simulations with specific square pupil (side D) phase functions, such as ... demonstrate annulling in at least one quadrant of the diffraction plane to the contrast level of better than 10^12 with an inner working angle down to 3.5L/D (with a = 3 and e = 10^3). Furthermore, our computer experiments show that phase apodization remains effective throughout a broad spectrum (60% of the central wavelength) covering the entire visible light range. In addition to the specific phase functions that can yield deep sidelobe reduction on one quadrant, we also found that a modified Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm can help to find small sized (101 x 101 element) discrete phase functions if regional sidelobe reduction is desired. Our simulation shows that a 101x101 segmented but gapless active mirror can also generate a dark region with Inner Working Distance about 2.8L/D in one quadrant. Phase-only modulation has the additional appeal of potential implementation via active segmented or deformable mirrors, thereby combining compensation of random phase aberrations and diffraction halo removal in a single optical element.

Deleterious outcome of No-React-treated stentless valved conduits after aortic root replacement: why were warnings ignored?

OBJECTIVE: The implantation of a composite graft is the treatment of choice for patients with aortic root disease if the valve cannot be preserved and the patient is not a suitable candidate for a Ross procedure. Several years ago, the Shelhigh NR-2000C (Shelhigh, Inc, Millburn, NJ) was introduced in Europe. Being a totally biologic conduit and considering the lack of homografts, the graft seemed an ideal conduit for patients with destructive endocarditis, as well as for older patients who were not suitable candidates for oral anticoagulation. METHODS: From 2001 until 2006, the Shelhigh NR-2000C stentless valved conduit was implanted in 115 patients for various aortic root pathologies. The conduit consists of a bovine pericardial straight graft with an incorporated porcine stentless valve. Aortic root repair was performed during standard cardiopulmonary bypass and mild hypothermia in the majority of patients. Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest combined with selective antegrade cerebral perfusion was used when the repair extended into the arch. RESULTS: Seven patients with uncomplicated early outcome presented with unexpected sudden disastrous findings at the level of the aortic root, although 1-year follow-up computed tomographic scans were normal. Four of these patients underwent emergency operations because of desintegration of the graft, along with rupture of the aortic root. Retrospectively, the main findings were persistent fever or subfebrility over months and a halo-like enhancement on computed tomographic scans. Extensive microbiologic examinations were performed without finding a causative organism. CONCLUSION: The use of the Shelhigh aortic stentless conduit can no longer be advocated, and meticulous follow-up of patients in whom this device has been implanted has to be recommended.

The silent loss of neuronavigation accuracy: a systematic retrospective analysis of factors influencing the mismatch of frameless stereotactic systems in cranial neurosurgery

BACKGROUND Neuronavigation has become an intrinsic part of preoperative surgical planning and surgical procedures. However, many surgeons have the impression that accuracy decreases during surgery. OBJECTIVE To quantify the decrease of neuronavigation accuracy and identify possible origins, we performed a retrospective quality-control study. METHODS Between April and July 2011, a neuronavigation system was used in conjunction with a specially prepared head holder in 55 consecutive patients. Two different neuronavigation systems were investigated separately. Coregistration was performed with laser-surface matching, paired-point matching using skin fiducials, anatomic landmarks, or bone screws. The initial target registration error (TRE1) was measured using the nasion as the anatomic landmark. Then, after draping and during surgery, the accuracy was checked at predefined procedural landmark steps (Mayfield measurement point and bone measurement point), and deviations were recorded. RESULTS After initial coregistration, the mean (SD) TRE1 was 2.9 (3.3) mm. The TRE1 was significantly dependent on patient positioning, lesion localization, type of neuroimaging, and coregistration method. The following procedures decreased neuronavigation accuracy: attachment of surgical drapes (DTRE2 = 2.7 [1.7] mm), skin retractor attachment (DTRE3 = 1.2 [1.0] mm), craniotomy (DTRE3 = 1.0 [1.4] mm), and Halo ring installation (DTRE3 = 0.5 [0.5] mm). Surgery duration was a significant factor also; the overall DTRE was 1.3 [1.5] mm after 30 minutes and increased to 4.4 [1.8] mm after 5.5 hours of surgery. CONCLUSION After registration, there is an ongoing loss of neuronavigation accuracy. The major factors were draping, attachment of skin retractors, and duration of surgery. Surgeons should be aware of this silent loss of accuracy when using neuronavigation.

Search for long-lived stopped R-hadrons decaying out-of-time with pp collisions using the ATLAS detector

An updated search is performed for gluino, top squark, or bottom squark R-hadrons that have come to rest within the ATLAS calorimeter, and decay at some later time to hadronic jets and a neutralino, using 5.0 and 22.9 fb(-1) of pp collisions at 7 and 8 TeV, respectively. Candidate decay events are triggered in selected empty bunch crossings of the LHC in order to remove pp collision backgrounds. Selections based on jet shape and muon system activity are applied to discriminate signal events from cosmic ray and beam-halo muon backgrounds. In the absence of an excess of events, improved limits are set on gluino, stop, and sbottom masses for different decays, lifetimes, and neutralino masses. With a neutralino of mass 100 GeV, the analysis excludes gluinos with mass below 832 GeV (with an expected lower limit of 731 GeV), for a gluino lifetime between 10 mu s and 1000 s in the generic R-hadron model with equal branching ratios for decays to q (q) over bar(chi) over tilde (0) and g (chi) over tilde (0). Under the same assumptions for the neutralino mass and squark lifetime, top squarks and bottom squarks in the Regge R-hadron model are excluded with masses below 379 and 344 GeV, respectively.

EChO

A dedicated mission to investigate exoplanetary atmospheres represents a major milestone in our quest to understand our place in the universe by placing our Solar System in context and by addressing the suitability of planets for the presence of life. EChO—the Exoplanet Characterisation Observatory—is a mission concept specifically geared for this purpose. EChO will provide simultaneous, multi-wavelength spectroscopic observations on a stable platform that will allow very long exposures. The use of passive cooling, few moving parts and well established technology gives a low-risk and potentially long-lived mission. EChO will build on observations by Hubble, Spitzer and ground-based telescopes, which discovered the first molecules and atoms in exoplanetary atmospheres. However, EChO’s configuration and specifications are designed to study a number of systems in a consistent manner that will eliminate the ambiguities affecting prior observations. EChO will simultaneously observe a broad enough spectral region—from the visible to the mid-infrared—to constrain from one single spectrum the temperature structure of the atmosphere, the abundances of the major carbon and oxygen bearing species, the expected photochemically-produced species and magnetospheric signatures. The spectral range and resolution are tailored to separate bands belonging to up to 30 molecules and retrieve the composition and temperature structure of planetary atmospheres. The target list for EChO includes planets ranging from Jupiter-sized with equilibrium temperatures T eq up to 2,000 K, to those of a few Earth masses, with T eq \u223c 300 K. The list will include planets with no Solar System analog, such as the recently discovered planets GJ1214b, whose density lies between that of terrestrial and gaseous planets, or the rocky-iron planet 55 Cnc e, with day-side temperature close to 3,000 K. As the number of detected exoplanets is growing rapidly each year, and the mass and radius of those detected steadily decreases, the target list will be constantly adjusted to include the most interesting systems. We have baselined a dispersive spectrograph design covering continuously the 0.4–16 μm spectral range in 6 channels (1 in the visible, 5 in the InfraRed), which allows the spectral resolution to be adapted from several tens to several hundreds, depending on the target brightness. The instrument will be mounted behind a 1.5 m class telescope, passively cooled to 50 K, with the instrument structure and optics passively cooled to \u223c45 K. EChO will be placed in a grand halo orbit around L2. This orbit, in combination with an optimised thermal shield design, provides a highly stable thermal environment and a high degree of visibility of the sky to observe repeatedly several tens of targets over the year. Both the baseline and alternative designs have been evaluated and no critical items with Technology Readiness Level (TRL) less than 4–5 have been identified. We have also undertaken a first-order cost and development plan analysis and find that EChO is easily compatible with the ESA M-class mission framework.

Development and validation of a quantitative method to assess pedicle screw loosening in posterior spine instrumentation on plain radiographs.

PURPOSE Currently, the diagnosis of pedicle screw (PS) loosening is based on a subjectively assessed halo sign, that is, a radiolucent line around the implant wider than 1 mm in plain radiographs. We aimed at development and validation of a quantitative method to diagnose PS loosening on radiographs. METHODS Between 11/2004 and 1/2010 36 consecutive patients treated with thoraco-lumbar spine fusion with PS instrumentation without PS loosening were compared with 37 other patients who developed a clinically manifesting PS loosening. Three different angles were measured and compared regarding their capability to discriminate the loosened PS over the postoperative course. The inter-observer invariance was tested and a receiver operating characteristics curve analysis was performed. RESULTS The angle measured between the PS axis and the cranial endplate was significantly different between the early and all later postoperative images. The Spearman correlation coefficient for the measurements of two observers at each postoperative time point ranged between 0.89 at 2 weeks to 0.94 at 2 months and 1 year postoperative. The angle change of 1.9° between immediate postoperative and 6-month postoperative was 75% sensitive and 89% specific for the identification of loosened screws (AUC = 0.82). DISCUSSION The angle between the PS axis and the cranial endplate showed good ability to change in PS loosening. A change of this angle of at least 2° had a relatively high sensitivity and specificity to diagnose screw loosening.

[Ein Mondhof] : Anno 1645 an St. Thomae Tag den 21. Decembris, Nachts oder Umb 8 der kleinen Uhr nachmittag, hat der Monndt, so noch nicht gar vol, oberhalb gegen Nordwesten, ein Bogen gehabt .̤

Beschreibung des Mondhofes, gefolgt von Berichten über früher beobachtete Mondhoefe

TURNOVER RATE OF THE NEURONAL CONNEXIN CX36 IN HELA CELLS

Electrical synapses formed of the gap junction protein Cx36 show a great deal of functional plasticity, much dependent on changes in phosphorylation state of the connexin. However, gap junction turnover may also be important for regulating cell-cell communication, and turnover rates of Cx36 have not been studied. Connexins have relatively fast turnover rates, with short half-lives measured to be 1.5 to 3.5 hours in pulse-chase analyses of connexins (Cx26 and Cx43) in tissue culture cells and whole organs. We utilized HaloTag technology to study the turnover rate of Cx36 in transiently transfected HeLa cells. The HaloTag protein forms irreversible covalent bonds with chloroalkane ligands, allowing pulse-chase experiments to be performed very specifically. The HaloTag open reading frame was inserted into an internal site in the C-terminus of Cx36 designed not to disrupt the regulatory phosphorylation sites and not to block the C-terminal PDZ interaction motif. Functional properties of Cx36-Halo were assessed by Neurobiotin tracer coupling, live cell imaging, and immunostaining. For the pulse-chase study, transiently transfected HeLa cells were pulse labeled with Oregon Green (OG) HaloTag ligand and chase labeled at various times with tetramethylrhodamine (TMR) HaloTag ligand. Cx36-Halo formed large junctional plaques at sites of contact between transfected HeLa cells and was also contained in a large number of intracellular vesicles. The Cx36-Halo transfected HeLa cells supported Neurobiotin tracer coupling that was regulated by activation and inhibition of PKA in the same manner as wild-type Cx36 transfected cells. In the pulse-chase study, junctional protein labeled with the pulse ligand (OG) was gradually replaced by newly synthesized Cx36 labeled with the chase ligand (TMR). The half-life for turnover of protein in junctional plaques was 2.8 hours. Treatment of the pulse-labeled cells with Brefeldin A (BFA) prevented the addition of new connexins to junctional plaques, suggesting that the assembly of Cx36 into gap junctions involves the traditional ER-Golgi-TGN-plasma membrane pathway. In conclusion, Cx36-Halo is functional and has a turnover rate in HeLa cells similar to that of other connexins that have been studied. This turnover rate is likely too slow to contribute substantially to short-term changes in coupling of neurons driven by transmitters such as dopamine, which take minutes to achieve. However, turnover may contribute to longer-term changes in coupling.