Il "caso" Maroncelli. Organizzazione del consenso e vincoli massonici nell'Italia radicale e nella New York della Tammany Hall, 1840-1890

Questa tesi parte da un evento “minore” della storia del XIX secolo per tendere, poi, ad alcuni obiettivi particolari. L’evento è costituito da uno strano funerale postumo, quello di Piero Maroncelli, carbonaro finito alla Spielberg, graziato, poi emigrato in Francia e in America, il cui corpo viene sepolto a New York nell’estate del 1846. Quarant’anni dopo, nel 1886, i resti di Maroncelli vengono esumati e – attraverso una “trafila” particolare, di cui è protagonista la Massoneria, da una sponda all’altra dell’Atlantico – solennemente trasferiti nella città natale di Forlì, dove vengono collocati nel pantheon del cimitero monumentale, inaugurato per l’occasione. Gli eventi celebrativi che si consumano a New York e a Forlì sono molto diversi fra loro, anche se avvengono quasi in contemporanea e sotto regie politiche ispirate dal medesimo radicalismo anticlericale. E’ chiaro che Maroncelli è un simbolo e un pretesto: simbolo di un’italianità transnazionale, composta di un “corpo” in transito, fuori dello spazio nazionale, ma appartenente alla patria (quella grande e quella piccola); pretesto per acquisire e rafforzare legami politici, mercè mobilitazioni di massa in un caso fondate sul festival, sulla festa en plein air, nell’altro sui rituali del cordoglio per i “martiri” dell’indipendenza. L’opportunità di comparare questi due contesti – l’Italia, colta nella sua periferia radicale e la New York della Tammany Hall -, non sulla base di ipotesi astratte, ma nella concretezza di un “caso di studio” reale e simultaneo, consente di riflettere sulla pervasività dell’ideologia democratica nella sua accezione ottocentesca, standardizzata dalla Massoneria, e, d’altro canto, sui riti del consenso, colti nelle rispettive tipicità locali. Un gioco di similitudini e di dissomiglianze, quindi. Circa gli obiettivi particolari – al di là della ricostruzione del “caso” Maroncelli -, ho cercato di sondare alcuni temi, proponendone una ricostruzione in primo luogo storiografica. Da un lato, il tema dell’esilio e del trapianto delle esperienze di vita e di relazione al di fuori del proprio contesto d’origine. Maroncelli utilizza, come strumento di identitario e di accreditamento, il fourierismo; la generazione appena successiva alla sua, grazie alla Giovine Italia, possiede già un codice interno, autoctono, cui fare riferimento; alla metà degli anni Cinquanta, ad esso si affiancherà, con successo crescente, la lettura “diplomatica” di ascendenza sabauda. Dall’altro, ho riflettuto sull’aspetto legato ai funerali politici, al cordoglio pubblico, al trasferimento postumo dei corpi. La letteratura disponibile, al riguardo, è assai ricca, e tale da consentire una precisa classificazione del “caso” Maroncelli all’interno di una tipologia della morte laica, ben delineata nell’Italia dell’Ottocento e del primo Novecento. E poi, ancora, ho preso in esame le dinamiche “festive” e di massa, approfondendo quelle legate al mondo dell’emigrazione italiana a Mew York, così distante nel 1886 dall’élite colta di quarant’anni prima, eppure così centrale per il controllo politico della città. Dinamiche alle quali fa da contrappunto, sul versante forlivese, la visione del mondo radicale e massonico locale, dominato dalla figura di Aurelio Saffi e dal suo tentativo di plasmare un’immagine morale e patriottica della città da lasciare ai posteri. Quasi un’ossessione, per il vecchio triumviro della Repubblica romana (morirà nel 1890), che interviene sulla toponomastica, sull’edilizia cemeteriale, sui pantheon civico, sui “ricordi” patriottici. Ho utilizzato fonti secondarie e di prima mano. Anche sulle prime, quantitativamente assai significative, mi sono misurata con un lavoro di composizione e di lettura comparata prima mai tentato. La giustapposizione di chiavi di lettura apparentemente distanti, ma giustificate dalla natura proteiforme e complicata del nostro “caso”, apre, a mio giudizio, interessanti prospettive di ricerca. Circa le fonti di prima mano, ho attinto ai fondi disponibili su Maroncelli presso la Biblioteca comunale di Forlì, alle raccolte del Grande Oriente d’Italia a Roma, a periodici italoamericani assai rari, sparsi in diverse biblioteche italiane, da Milano a Roma. Mi rendo conto che la quantità dei materiali reperiti, sovente molto eterogenei, avrebbero imposto una lettura delle fonti più accurata di quella che, in questa fase della ricerca, sono riuscita a condurre. E’ vero, però, che le suggestioni già recuperabili ad un’analisi mirata al contenuto principale – le feste, la propaganda, il cordoglio – consentono la tessitura di una narrazione non forzata, nella quale il ricordo della Repubblica romana viaggia da una sponda all’altra dell’Atlantica, insieme ai resti di Maroncelli; nella quale il rituale massonico funge da facilitatore e da “mediatore culturale”; nella quale, infine, il linguaggio patriottico e la koinè democratica trans-nazionale riescono incredibilmente a produrre o a incarnare identità. Per quanto tempo? La risposta, nel caso forlivese, è relativamente facile; in quello della “colonia” italiana di New York, presto alterata nella sua connotazione demografica dalla grande emigrazione transoceanica, le cose appaiono più complesse. E, tuttavia, nel 1911, cinquantesimo dell’Unità, qualcuno, nella grande metropoli americana, si sarebbe ricordato di Maroncelli, sia pure in un contesto e con finalità del tutto diverse rispetto al 1886: segno che qualcosa, sotto traccia, era sopravvissuto.

Influence of defects and disorder on anomalous Hall effect and spin Seebeck effect on permalloy and Heusler compounds

In dieser Arbeit wurden dünne Schichten von Heusler-Verbindungen hergestellt und auf ihre Transporteigenschaften hin untersucht.rnDer Anomale Hall-Effekt (AHE) ist dabei von besonderem Interesse. Er ist ein seit langer Zeit bekannter, jedoch noch nicht vollständig verstandener Transport-Effekt. Die meisten Veröffentlichungen theoretischer Arbeiten konzentrieren sich auf den Einfluss eines bestimmten Beitrags zum AHE. Tatsächlich gemessene experimentelle Daten können jedoch oft nicht in Einklang mit idealisierten Annahmen gebracht werden. rnDie vorliegende Arbeit diskutiert die Ergebnisse, welche aus Messungen von Materialien mit niedrigem Restwiderstand erhalten wurden. rnrnAls prototypische Materialien wurden hier hyphenation Heusler-Verbindungen untersucht. Als Material mit einer komplexen Topologie der Fermi-Fläche zeichnet sich dort der Einfluss von Defekten und der Unordnung der Kristallstruktur deutlich ab.rnrnDurch Verwendung von Filmen mit unterschiedlichem Grad der Unordnung können verschiedene Streumechanismen unterschieden werden. Für Co$_{2}$FeSi$_{0.6}$Al$_{0.4}$ and Co$_{2}$FeGa$_{0.5}$Ge$_{0.5}$ zeigt sich ein positiver AHE bei einer Unordnung vom Typ B2 und bei einer induzierten temperaturabh"angigen Streuung, wo hingegen eine Typ DO$_{3}$-Unordnung zusammen mit anderen möglichen intrinsischen Beiträgen einen negativen Effekt hervorruft.rnrnDarüber hinaus wurden die magneto-optische Kerr-Effekte (MOKE) dieser Verbindungen untersucht. Hierfür wurden Beiträge erster Ordnung als Funktion der intrinsischen und extrinsischen Parameter qualitativ analysiert. Auf den Einfluss der kristallinen Ordnung auf Beiträge zweiter Ordnung des MOKE-Signals wird ebenfalls eingegangen.rnrnDes Weiteren wurden dünne Schichten der Heusler-Verbindung Co$_{2}$MnAl auf MgO- und Si-Subs-traten (beide (100)) mit Hochfrequenz-Mag-netron-Sputtern erzeugt. Die zusammensetzung sowie die magnetischen und Transport-Eigenschaften wurden hinsichtlich unterschiedlicher Abscheidebedingungen systematisch untersucht.rnrnInsbesondere zeigt der AHE-Widerstand ein außerordentliches temperaturunabhängiges Verhalten in einem Bereich moderater Magnetfeldstärken von 0 bis 0.6,T. Hierf"ur wurde der nicht-diagonale Transport bei Temperaturen bis zu 300,$^{circ}$C analysiert. Die Daten zeigen die Eignung des Materials für Hall-Sensoren auch oberhalb der Raumtemperatur.rnrnJüngst wurde der Spin Seebeck-Effekt (SSE) entdeckt. Der Effekt aus dem Bereich der Spin-Kaloritronik erzeugt eine Spin-Spannung'' aufgrund eines Temperaturgradienten in magnetischen Materialien. Hier werden vorläufige Messungen des SSE in Ni$_{80}$Fe$_{20}$ und in Heusler-Verbindungen präsentiert.rn

Progetto e realizzazione di un sistema di test per sensori a effetto hall a banda larga

Un ambito di largo interesse nel campo dell’elettronica, è quello delle misure di corrente a larga banda, in cui la richiesta per sistemi a basso costo è aumentata sensibilmente nel corso del tempo. La causa di questo interessamento è dovuto al più frequente utilizzo di sistemi switched power ad alta frequenza, che necessitano di sensori di correnti isolati e ad alte prestazioni. L’intero lavoro prende in considerazione un sensore di nuova generazione per le misure di corrente, capace di raggiungere prestazioni oltre lo stato dell’arte. L’elaborato presentato vede, quindi, come obiettivo la creazione di un setup stabile per effettuare misure sui chip prodotti. Partendo dallo studio di fattibilità, della componentistica necessaria e dei compromessi per mantenere i costi, si giunge ad una soluzione flessibile e adatta alle misurazioni richieste. L’elaborato partirà con una introduzione sugli effetti fisici e la descrizione del componente fondamentale, passando a test funzionali effettuati su setup provvisori atti a ottenere informazioni basilari per la prosecuzione del lavoro. Infine verranno concepite e realizzate due schede a circuiti stampati per rispondere alle esigenze di progetto.

Caratterizzazione e testing di Sensori Hall Commerciali

Questa Tesi di Laurea si prefigge gli obiettivi di riuscire a caratterizzare i Sensori Hall e di testare un Sensore Hall di Asahi-Kasei, il CQ-3300, di cui l’Università di Bologna è in possesso. Per questa ragione si può dividere il processo di realizzazione della tesi in 2 fasi ben distinte: • Una prima fase dedicata interamente allo studio dell’argomento e alla ricerca online di Sensori Hall presenti sul mercato. Si è dunque approfondito il fenomeno fisico su cui essi basano il proprio funzionamento, le loro caratteristiche principali e le loro applicazioni. Se ne sono poi scelti due, oltre al CQ-3300, tra quelli presenti sul mercato per poterli caratterizzare e confrontare con il suddetto. • Una seconda fase dedicata ai test sul Sensore nel laboratorio di elettronica. Durante questa fase è stato montato su PCB (Printed Circuit Board) il sensore Hall CQ-3300 e sono stati realizzati dei circuiti di prova con lo scopo di verificare il corretto funzionamento del Sensore e l’effettiva banda di funzionamento. I tests in corrente alternata sono stati effettuati grazie all’ausilio di un generatore di corrente in grado di convertire un segnale in tensione in un segnale in corrente. Questo generatore di corrente però non può erogare un segnale in corrente di ampiezza maggiore a 1 Ampere, ragione per cui si è preferito tenersi alla larga da tale valore. L’Università di Bologna ritiene necessario testare questo sensore in termini di banda, in quanto ha progettato un Sensore Hall dalle caratteristiche simili in termini di banda di lavoro al componente in questione, il che rende importante capire se quest’ultimo tiene fede alla banda di lavoro che viene indicata sul suo datasheet, ovvero 1 MHz.

Caratterizzazione di sistemi di misura di corrente basati su sensori a Effetto Hall

Elaborato di tesi con lo scopo principale di creare una scheda di test migliorata per la caratterizzazione di sistemi di misura di corrente su sensori a Effetto Hall.

Building the New Society in the Shell of the Old: Finnish-Canadian Hall Socialism and the Canadian Industrial Unionist Support League

The literature on Finnish immigrant working-class movements in North America frequently makes reference to the phenomenon of "hall socialism," so-called because of the central position that the socialist or labor hall occupied in the political, associational, and cultural life of many Finnish communities throughout the twentieth-century. In the 1930s, over 80 such Finnish halls were spread across Canada, and many people associated with these halls vigorously supported the mission of organized labor. This paper will examine the history, ideas, and practices of the Industrial Workers of the World-influenced Canadan Teollisuusunionistien Kannatus Liitto (CTKL; Canadian Industrial Unionist Support League), and its connections to Finnish Canadian hall socialism. The paper will consider the role of the CTKL in supporting workers' struggles, the significance of the hall as a part of the infrastructural bedrock that sustained this support, and the broader interaction between social and radical organizing commitments.

Lessons Learned from 'Hall of Socialism': Juxtaposing Finnish-American Radicalism with Today's Protest Movements

Historical accounts of revolutionary movements oftentimes occlude the pleasures of countering hegemony or criticize the “frivolity” of what is perceived to be non-political activities. However, turn of the century Finnish-American socialist theater clubs and early twentieth century Finnish-American communist halls and their uncounted social groups and activities prove to be a rich resource in reconsidering the importance of acknowledging and understanding the role that pleasure has played and should play in political protest. Finnish-American radical activities, especially those condemned already at the time as hall socialism, are important historical precedents to today’s alter-globalization student festivals and protest concerts, midnight raves

Hall-effect thruster-cathode coupling : the effect of cathode position and magnetic field topology

Hall-effect thruster (HET) cathodes are responsible for the generation of the free electrons necessary to initiate and sustain the main plasma discharge and to neutralize the ion beam. The position of the cathode relative to the thruster strongly affects the efficiency of thrust generation. However, the mechanisms by which the position affects the efficiency are not well understood. This dissertation explores the effect of cathode position on HET efficiency. Magnetic field topology is shown to play an important role in the coupling between the cathode plasma and the main discharge plasma. The position of the cathode within the magnetic field affects the ion beam and the plasma properties of the near-field plume, which explains the changes in efficiency of the thruster. Several experiments were conducted which explored the changes of efficiency arising from changes in cathode coupling. In each experiment, the thrust, discharge current, and cathode coupling voltage were monitored while changes in the independent variables of cathode position, cathode mass flow and magnetic field topology were made. From the telemetry data, the efficiency of the HET thrust generation was calculated. Furthermore, several ion beam and plasma properties were measured including ion energy distribution, beam current density profile, near-field plasma potential, electron temperature, and electron density. The ion beam data show how the independent variables affected the quality of ion beam and therefore the efficiency of thrust generation. The measurements of near-field plasma properties partially explain how the changes in ion beam quality arise. The results of the experiments show that cathode position, mass flow, and field topology affect several aspects of the HET operation, especially beam divergence and voltage utilization efficiencies. Furthermore, the experiments show that magnetic field topology is important in the cathode coupling process. In particular, the magnetic field separatrix plays a critical role in impeding the coupling between cathode and HET. Suggested changes to HET thruster designs are provided including ways to improve the position of the separatrix to accommodate the cathode.

Effect of segmented anodes on the performance and plume of a hall thruster

Development of alternative propellants for Hall thruster operation is an active area of research. Xenon is the current propellant of choice for Hall thrusters, but can be costly in large thrusters and for extended test periods. Condensible propellants may offer an alternative to xenon, as they will not require costly active pumping to remove from a test facility, and may be less expensive to purchase. A method has been developed which uses segmented electrodes in the discharge channel of a Hall thruster to divert discharge current to and from the main anode and thus control the anode temperature. By placing a propellant reservoir in the anode, the evaporation rate, and hence, mass flow of propellant can be controlled. Segmented electrodes for thermal control of a Hall thruster represent a unique strategy of thruster design, and thus the performance of the thruster must be measured to determine the effect the electrodes have on the thruster. Furthermore, the source of any changes in thruster performance due to the adjustment of discharge current between the shims and the main anode must be characterized. A Hall thruster was designed and constructed with segmented electrodes. It was then tested at anode voltages between 300 and 400 V and mass flows between 4 and 6 mg/s, as well as 100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, and <5% of the discharge current on the shim electrodes. The level of current on the shims was adjusted by changing the shim voltage. At each operating point, the thruster performance, plume divergence, ion energy, and multiply charged ion fraction were measured performance exhibited a small change with the level of discharge current on the shim electrodes. Thrust and specific impulse increased by as much as 6% and 7.7%, respectively, as discharge current was shifted from the main anode to the shims at constant anode voltage. Thruster efficiency did not change. Plume divergence was reduced by approximately 4 degrees of half-angle at high levels of current on the shims and at all combinations of mass flow and anode voltage. The fraction of singly charged xenon in the thruster plume varied between approximately 80% and 95% as the anode voltage and mass flow were changed, but did not show a significant change with shim current. Doubly and triply charged xenon made up the remainder of the ions detected. Ion energy exhibited a mixed behavior. The highest voltage present in the thruster largely dictated the most probable energy; either shim or anode voltage, depending on which was higher. The overall change in most probable ion energy was 20-30 eV, the majority of which took place while the shim voltage was higher than the anode voltage. The thrust, specific impulse, plume divergence, and ion energy all indicate that the thruster is capable of a higher performance output at high levels of discharge current on the shims. The lack of a change in efficiency and fraction of multiply charged ions indicate that the thruster can be operated at any level of current on the shims without detrimental effect, and thus a condensible propellant thruster can control the anode temperature without a decrease in efficiency or a change in the multiply charged ion fraction.

Development of a direct evaporation bismuth Hall thruster

Hall thrusters have been under active development around the world since the 1960’s. Thrusters using traditional propellants such as xenon have been flown on a variety of satellite orbit raising and maintenance missions with an excellent record. To expand the mission envelope, it is necessary to lower the specific impulse of the thrusters but xenon and krypton are poor performers at specific impulses below 1,200 seconds. To enhance low specific impulse performance, this dissertation examines the development of a Hall-effect thruster which uses bismuth as a propellant. Bismuth, the heaviest non-radioactive element, holds many advantages over noble gas propellants from an energetics as well as a practical economic standpoint. Low ionization energy, large electron-impact crosssection and high atomic mass make bismuth ideal for low-specific impulse applications. The primary disadvantage lies in the high temperatures which are required to generate the bismuth vapors. Previous efforts carried out in the Soviet Union relied upon the complete bismuth vaporization and gas phase delivery to the anode. While this proved successful, the power required to vaporize and maintain gas phase throughout the mass flow system quickly removed many of the efficiency gains expected from using bismuth. To solve these problems, a unique method of delivering liquid bismuth to the anode has been developed. Bismuth is contained within a hollow anode reservoir that is capped by a porous metallic disc. By utilizing the inherent waste heat generated in a Hall thruster, liquid bismuth is evaporated and the vapors pass through the porous disc into the discharge chamber. Due to the high temperatures and material compatibility requirements, the anode was fabricated out of pure molybdenum. The porous vaporizer was not available commercially so a method of creating a refractory porous plate with 40-50% open porosity was developed. Molybdenum also does not respond well to most forms of welding so a diffusion bonding process was also developed to join the molybdenum porous disc to the molybdenum anode. Operation of the direct evaporation bismuth Hall thruster revealed interesting phenomenon. By utilizing constant current mode on a discharge power supply, the discharge voltage settles out to a stable operating point which is a function of discharge current, anode face area and average pore size on the vaporizer. Oscillations with a 40 second period were also observed. Preliminary performance data suggests that the direct evaporation bismuth Hall thruster performs similar to xenon and krypton Hall thrusters. Plume interrogation with a Retarding Potential Analyzer confirmed that bismuth ions were being efficiently accelerated while Faraday probe data gave a view of the ion density in the exhausted plume.

Laser Thomson scattering measurements of electron temperature and density in a Hall-effect plasma

Hall-effect thrusters (HETs) are compact electric propulsion devices with high specific impulse used for a variety of space propulsion applications. HET technology is well developed but the electron properties in the discharge are not completely understood, mainly due to the difficulty involved in performing accurate measurements in the discharge. Measurements of electron temperature and density have been performed using electrostatic probes, but presence of the probes can significantly disrupt thruster operation, and thus alter the electron temperature and density. While fast-probe studies have expanded understanding of HET discharges, a non-invasive method of measuring the electron temperature and density in the plasma is highly desirable. An alternative to electrostatic probes is a non-perturbing laser diagnostic technique that measures Thomson scattering from the plasma. Thomson scattering is the process by which photons are elastically scattered from the free electrons in a plasma. Since the electrons have thermal energy their motion causes a Doppler shift in the scattered photons that is proportional to their velocity. Like electrostatic probes, laser Thomson scattering (LTS) can be used to determine the temperature and density of free electrons in the plasma. Since Thomson scattering measures the electron velocity distribution function directly no assumptions of the plasma conditions are required, allowing accurate measurements in anisotropic and non-Maxwellian plasmas. LTS requires a complicated measurement apparatus, but has the potential to provide accurate, non-perturbing measurements of electron temperature and density in HET discharges. In order to assess the feasibility of LTS diagnostics on HETs non-invasive measurements of electron temperature and density in the near-field plume of a Hall thruster were performed using a custom built laser Thomson scattering diagnostic. Laser measurements were processed using a maximum likelihood estimation method and results were compared to conventional electrostatic double probe measurements performed at the same thruster conditions. Electron temperature was found to range from approximately 1 – 40 eV and density ranged from approximately 1.0 x 1017 m-3 to 1.3 x 1018 m-3 over discharge voltages from 250 to 450 V and mass flow rates of 40 to 80 SCCM using xenon propellant.

EVALUATION OF MAGNESIUM AS A HALL THRUSTER PROPELLANT

In this study, the use of magnesium as a Hall thruster propellant was evaluated. A xenon Hall thruster was modified such that magnesium propellant could be loaded into the anode and use waste heat from the thruster discharge to drive the propellant vaporization. A control scheme was developed, which allowed for precise control of the mass flow rate while still using plasma heating as the main mechanism for evaporation. The thruster anode, which also served as the propellant reservoir, was designed such that the open area was too low for sufficient vapor flow at normal operating temperatures (i.e. plasma heating alone). The remaining heat needed to achieve enough vapor flow to sustain thruster discharge came from a counter-wound resistive heater located behind the anode. The control system has the ability to arrest thermal runaway in a direct evaporation feed system and stabilize the discharge current during voltage-limited operation. A proportional-integral-derivative control algorithm was implemented to enable automated operation of the mass flow control system using the discharge current as the measured variable and the anode heater current as the controlled parameter. Steady-state operation at constant voltage with discharge current excursions less than 0.35 A was demonstrated for 70 min. Using this long-duration method, stable operation was achieved with heater powers as low as 6% of the total discharge power. Using the thermal mass flow control system the thruster operated stably enough and long enough that performance measurements could be obtained and compared to the performance of the thruster using xenon propellant. It was found that when operated with magnesium, the thruster has thrust ranging from 34 mN at 200 V to 39 mN at 300 V with 1.7 mg/s of propellant. It was found to have 27 mN of thrust at 300 V using 1.0 mg/s of propellant. The thrust-to-power ratio ranged from 24 mN/kW at 200 V to 18 mN/kW at 300 volts. The specific impulse was 2000 s at 200 V and upwards of 2700 s at 300 V. The anode efficiency was found to be ~23% using magnesium, which is substantially lower than the 40% anode efficiency of xenon at approximately equivalent molar flow rates. Measurements in the plasma plume of the thruster—operated using magnesium and xenon propellants—were obtained using a Faraday probe to measure off-axis current distribution, a retarding potential analyzer to measure ion energy, and a double Langmuir probe to measure plasma density, electron temperature, and plasma potential. Additionally, the off axis current distributions and ion energy distributions were compared to measurements made in krypton and bismuth plasmas obtained in previous studies of the same thruster. Comparisons showed that magnesium had the largest beam divergence of the four propellants while the others had similar divergence. The comparisons also showed that magnesium and krypton both had very low voltage utilization compared to xenon and bismuth. It is likely that the differences in plume structure are due to the atomic differences between the propellants; the ionization mean free path goes down with increasing atomic mass. Magnesium and krypton have long ionization mean free paths and therefore require physically larger thruster dimensions for efficient thruster operation and would benefit from magnetic shielding.