We Are All Georgians : The Neoconservative Narrative on the Russia-Georgia War

In this thesis I examine the U.S. foreign policy discussion that followed the war between Russia and Georgia in August 2008. In the politically charged setting that preceded the presidential elections, the subject of the debate was not only Washington's response to the crisis in the Caucasus but, more generally, the direction of U.S. foreign policy after the presidency of George W. Bush. As of November 2010, the reasons for and consequences of the Russia-Georgia war continue to be contested. My thesis demonstrates that there were already a number of different stories about the conflict immediately after the outbreak of hostilities. I want to argue that among these stories one can discern a “neoconservative narrative” that described the war as a confrontation between the East and the West and considered it as a test for Washington’s global leadership. I draw on the theory of securitization, particularly on a framework introduced by Holger Stritzel. Accordingly, I consider statements about the conflict as “threat texts” and analyze these based on the existing discursive context, the performative force of the threat texts and the positional power of the actors presenting them. My thesis suggests that a notion of narrativity can complement Stritzel’s securitization framework and take it further. Threat texts are established as narratives by attaching causal connections, meaning and actorship to the discourse. By focusing on this process I want to shed light on the relationship between the text and the context, capture the time dimension of a speech act articulation and help to explain how some interpretations of the conflict are privileged and others marginalized. I develop the theoretical discussion through an empirical analysis of the neoconservative narrative. Drawing on Stritzel’s framework, I argue that the internal logic of the narrative which was presented as self-evident can be analyzed in its historicity. Asking what was perceived to be at stake in the conflict, how the narrative was formed and what purposes it served also reveals the possibility for alternative explanations. My main source material consists of transcripts of think tank seminars organized in Washington, D.C. in August 2008. In addition, I resort to the foreign policy discussion in the mainstream media.

Between West and East: A Social History of Business Journalism in Cold War Finland

The Cold War era was characterized by ideological struggles that had a major impact on economic decision-making, and also on management practice. To date, however, these ideological struggles have received little attention from management and organizational scholars. To partially fill this research gap, we focus on the role of the media in these ideological struggles. Our starting point is that the media both reflect more general societal debates but also act as an agency promoting specific kinds of ideas and ideologies. In this sense, the media exercise significant power in society; this influece, however, is often subtle and easily dismissed in historical analyses focusing on political and corporate decision-making. In this article, we focus on the role of business journalism in the ideological struggles of the Cold War era. Our case in point is Finland, which is arguably a particularly interesting example due to its geo-political position between East and West. Our approach is socio-historical: we focus on the emergence and development of business journalism in the context of the specific struggles in the Finnish political and economic fields. Our analysis shows how the business journalists struggled between nationalist, pro-Soviet and pro-West political forces, but gradually developed into an increasingly influential force promoting neo-liberal ideology.

Nationalism Circumscribed : Transnational Governance of Minority Rights in Post-Cold War Europe

For the past two centuries, nationalism has been among the most influential legitimizing principles of political organization. According to its simple definition, nationalism is a principle or a way of thinking and acting which holds that the world is divided into nations, and that national and political units should be congruent. Nationalism can thus be divided into two aspects: internal and external. Internally, the political units, i.e., states, should be made up of only one nation. Externally each nation-state should be sovereign. Transnational national governance of rights of national minorities violates both these principles. This study explores the formation, operation, and effectiveness of the European post-Cold War minorities system. The study identifies two basic approaches to minority rights: security and justice. These approaches have been used to legitimize international minority politics and they also inform the practice of transnational governance. The security approach is based on the recognition that the norm of national self-determination cannot be fulfilled in all relevant cases, and so minority rights are offered as a compensation to the dissatisfied national groups, reducing their aspiration to challenge the status quo. From the justice perspective, minority rights are justified as a compensatory strategy against discrimination caused by majority nation-building. The research concludes that the post-Cold War minorities system was justified on the basis of a particular version of the security approach, according to which only Eastern European minority situations are threatening because of the ethnic variant of nationalism that exists in that region. This security frame was essential in internationalising minority issues and justifying the swift development of norms and institutions to deal with these issues. However, from the justice perspective this approach is problematic, since it justified double standards in European minority politics. Even though majority nation-building is often detrimental to minorities also in Western Europe, Western countries can treat their minorities more or less however they choose. One of the main contributions of this thesis is the detailed investigation of the operation of the post-Cold War minorities system. For the first decade since its creation in the early 1990s, the system operated mainly through its security track, which is based on the field activities of the OSCE that are supported by the EU. The study shows how the effectiveness of this track was based on inter-organizational cooperation in which various transnational actors compensate for each other s weaknesses. After the enlargement of the EU and dissolution of the membership conditionality this track, which was limited to Eastern Europe from the start, has become increasingly ineffective. Since the EU enlargement, the focus minorities system has shifted more and more towards its legal track, which is based on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Council of Europe). The study presents in detail how a network of like-minded representatives of governments, international organizations, and independent experts was able strengthen the framework convention s (originally weak) monitoring system considerably. The development of the legal track allows for a more universal and consistent, justice-based approach to minority rights in contemporary Europe, but the nationalist principle of organization still severely hinders the materialization of this possibility.

We Are All Georgians: The Neoconservative Narrative on the Russia-Georgia War

In this thesis I examine the U.S. foreign policy discussion that followed the war between Russia and Georgia in August 2008. In the politically charged setting that preceded the presidential elections, the subject of the debate was not only Washington's response to the crisis in the Caucasus but, more generally, the direction of U.S. foreign policy after the presidency of George W. Bush. As of November 2010, the reasons for and consequences of the Russia-Georgia war continue to be contested. My thesis demonstrates that there were already a number of different stories about the conflict immediately after the outbreak of hostilities. I want to argue that among these stories one can discern a “neoconservative narrative” that described the war as a confrontation between the East and the West and considered it as a test for Washington’s global leadership. I draw on the theory of securitization, particularly on a framework introduced by Holger Stritzel. Accordingly, I consider statements about the conflict as “threat texts” and analyze these based on the existing discursive context, the performative force of the threat texts and the positional power of the actors presenting them. My thesis suggests that a notion of narrativity can complement Stritzel’s securitization framework and take it further. Threat texts are established as narratives by attaching causal connections, meaning and actorship to the discourse. By focusing on this process I want to shed light on the relationship between the text and the context, capture the time dimension of a speech act articulation and help to explain how some interpretations of the conflict are privileged and others marginalized. I develop the theoretical discussion through an empirical analysis of the neoconservative narrative. Drawing on Stritzel’s framework, I argue that the internal logic of the narrative which was presented as self-evident can be analyzed in its historicity. Asking what was perceived to be at stake in the conflict, how the narrative was formed and what purposes it served also reveals the possibility for alternative explanations. My main source material consists of transcripts of think tank seminars organized in Washington, D.C. in August 2008. In addition, I resort to the foreign policy discussion in the mainstream media.

Silva Fennica Vol. 16, 1982.

Julkaistu Silva Fennica Vol. 17(1) -numeron liitteenä.

Private and municipal forests and the forestry planning system in Japan - trends and problems after World War II.

XVIII IUFRO World Congress, Ljubljana 1986.

The German Military Entrepreneur Ernst von Mansfeld and His Conduct of Asymmetrical Warfare in the Thirty Years War

The dissertation examines aspects of asymmetrical warfare in the war-making of the German military entrepreneur Ernst von Mansfeld during his involvement in the Thirty Years War. Due to the nature of the inquiry, which combines history with military-political theory, the methodological approach of the dissertation is interdisciplinary. The theoretical framework used is that of asymmetrical warfare. The primary sources used in the dissertation are mostly political pamphlets and newsletters. Other sources include letters, documents, and contemporaneous chronicles. The secondary sources are divided into two categories, literature on the history of the Thirty Years War and textbooks covering the theory of asymmetrical warfare. The first category includes biographical works on Ernst von Mansfeld, as well as general histories of the Thirty Years War and seventeenth-century warfare. The second category combines military theory and political science. The structure of the dissertation consists of eight lead chapters, including an introduction and conclusion. The introduction covers the theoretical approach and aims of the dissertation, and provides a brief overlook of the sources and previous research on Ernst von Mansfeld and asymmetrical warfare in the Thirty Years War. The second chapter covers aspects of Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare from the perspective of operational art. The third chapter investigates the illegal and immoral aspects of Mansfeld s war-making. The fourth chapter compares the differing methods by which Mansfeld and his enemies raised and financed their armies. The fifth chapter investigates Mansfeld s involvement in indirect warfare. The sixth chapter presents Mansfeld as an object and an agent of image and information war. The seventh chapter looks into the counter-reactions, which Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare provoked from his enemies. The eighth chapter offers a conclusion of the findings. The dissertation argues that asymmetrical warfare presented itself in all the aforementioned areas of Mansfeld s conduct during the Thirty Years War. The operational asymmetry arose from the freedom of movement that Mansfeld enjoyed, while his enemies were constrained by the limits of positional warfare. As a non-state operator Mansfeld was also free to flout the rules of seventeenth-century warfare, which his enemies could not do with equal ease. The raising and financing of military forces was another source of asymmetry, because the nature of early seventeenth-century warfare favoured private military entrepreneurs rather than embryonic fiscal-military states. The dissertation also argues that other powers fought their own asymmetrical and indirect wars against the Habsburgs through Mansfeld s agency. Image and information were asymmetrical weapons, which were both aimed against Mansfeld and utilized by him. Finally, Mansfeld s asymmetrical threat forced the Habsburgs to adapt to his methods, which ultimately lead to the formation of a subcontracted Imperial Army under the management and leadership of Albrecht von Wallenstein. Therefore Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare ultimately paved way for the kind of state-monopolized, organised, and symmetrical warfare that has prevailed from 1648 onwards. The conclusion is that Mansfeld s conduct in the Thirty Years War matched the criteria for asymmetrical warfare. While traditional historiography treated Mansfeld as an anomaly in the age of European state formation, his asymmetrical warfare has begun to bear resemblance to the contemporary conflicts, where nation states no longer hold the monopoly of violence.

Oikeutta politiikan ehdoilla: Kansanmurhan vastainen sopimus Yhdistyneissä kansakunnissa vuosina 1951-1982

Kansanmurhan vastainen sopimus luotiin toisen maailmansodan jälkeen yhdessä muun Yhdistyneiden kansakuntien ihmisoikeusjärjestelmän kanssa vastaukseksi edellisten vuosikymmenten ihmisoikeusrikkomuksiin. Näistä pyrkimyksistä huolimatta sopimuksella ei ollut merkittävää roolia ihmisoikeusrikkomusten estämisessä aina 1990-luvulle saakka, ja useat väkivaltakampanjat ylsivät vuosikymmenten aikana kansanmurhan asteelle sopimuksen olemassaolosta huolimatta. Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena on arvioida, mitkä tekijät vaikuttivat sopimuksen marginaaliseen asemaan 1950-80 -luvuilla. Aiemmassa tutkimuskirjallisuudessa heikkoa asemaa on pyritty selittämään esimerkiksi sopimuksen tarpeettomuuteen sekä sen juridisiin ongelmiin tukeutuvien selitysten avulla. Vaikka tutkielma osin jakaakin näiden näkökulmien paikkansapitävyyden, argumentoi se myös, että sopimuksen asema liittyy oleellisesti kansainvälisen oikeuden ja kansainvälisen politiikan vuorovaikutteiseen suhteeseen. Kansainvälinen oikeus toisaalta vaikuttaa kansainvälisen politiikan luonteeseen, mutta myös kansainvälisen yhteisön parissa vallitsevat normit vaikuttavat siihen, minkälainen asema mahdollisesti ristiriitaisilla oikeusperiaatteilla on. Tutkielma käyttää lähdeaineistonaan Yhdistyneiden kansakuntien poliittisissa elimissä kansanmurhiin liittyneitä keskusteluita, ja pyrkii aineiston avulla kuvaamaan minkälainen asema kansanmurhan vastaisella sopimuksella oli kansainvälisen yhteisön normihierarkiassa. Tutkielma käyttää teoreettisena viitekehyksenään mukaelmaa Martti Koskenniemen esittelemästä ’lain’ ja ’politiikan’ dikotomiasta argumentin todistusvoimalle kansainvälisessä toiminnassa. Koska kansainvälinen toimija häivyttää argumentin poliittisen luonteen pukemalla argumentin lain verhoon, kertovat valtioiden valinnat käyttää tiettyjä oikeusperiaatteita näiden oikeusperiaatteiden hyväksytystä roolista kansainvälisinä normeina. Tähän viitekehykseen tukeutuen kansanmurhan vastaisesta sopimuksesta käydyn keskustelun määrä, sekä toisaalta sopimuksen rooli valtioiden poliittisessa argumentaatiossa luovat kuvan sopimuksen asemasta kansainvälisen yhteisön normihierarkiassa, sekä myös itsenäisesti vaikuttavat tähän asemaan. Tutkielma pyrkii valikoituihin tapaustutkimuksiin keskittyvän analyysin avulla erottamaan tekijöitä, jotka vaikuttivat siihen, millä tavoin valtiot käyttivät sopimusta poliittisessa keskustelussa. Jo aikaisessa vaiheessa tutkimusprosessia havaittiin, että kansanmurhan vastaisen sopimuksen heikko asema heijastui työhypoteesin mukaisesti sopimukseen liittyneiden keskusteluiden pienenä määränä. Lisäksi havaittiin, että YK:n elimissä käydyt keskustelut liittyivät harvoin, ainoastaan kahdessa tapauksessa, suoranaisesti kansanmurhan vastaiseen sopimukseen. Useimmiten keskustelu kansanmurhasta oli joko ainoastaan laajemman keskustelun sivujuonne, tai puuttui tyystin keskustelusta, jossa se olisi voinut olla mukana. Tapaustutkimuksiksi valittujen keskusteluiden analyysi osoittaa, että sopimuksesta käyty keskustelu muodostui usein kylmän sodan rintamalinjojen mukaiseksi, ja molemmat leirit mobilisoivat sopimuksen ideologisen kamppailun välineeksi. Toisaalta kylmään sotaan perustunut viitekehys vaikutti sopimuksen aseman taustalla vain pinnallisesti. Kansainvälisen yhteisön rakenne oli sopimuksesta käydyissä keskusteluissa moniuloitteinen, ja ideologian lisäksi myös muut tekijät vaikuttivat keskustelujen rakentumiseen. Ideologisesti vastakkaiset blokit myös jakoivat yhteisen käsityksen siitä, mitä kansainvälisen turvallisuuden konsepti piti sisällään, ja sekä Yhdysvallat että Neuvostoliitto suhtautuivat penseästi sopimuksen käyttöön sen rajoittaessa valtioiden suvereniteettia. Keskusteluista hahmottuu myös pienten valtioiden aktiivinen rooli sopimukseen tukeutumisessa suurvaltoihin verrattuna. Pienet valtiot saattoivat olla keskustelun aloittajina ainoastaan suurvaltojen palvelijoita, mutta voidaan myös arvioida johtuiko pienten valtioiden aktiivinen rooli niiden positiivisemmasta suhteesta kansainvälisen oikeusregiimin muodostumiseen. Tutkielma erottaa myös makrotason ongelmia, jotka vaikuttivat YK-järjestelmän toimintaan tutkimusajanjakson aikana. YK-järjestelmällä oli vaikeuksia puuttua maiden sisäisiin konflikteihin, mikä oli suoraan kytköksissä jännitteeseen suvereniteetin ja kansanmurhan vastaiseen sopimukseen sisältyvän puuttumisen velvoitteen välillä kansainvälisinä normeina. Toisaalta vaikeudet liittyivät myös tutkimusajanjakson aikana vallinneeseen, valtiolähtöiseen turvallisuuskäsitykseen. Vuoden 1982 Sabran ja Shatilan tapaus toi lisäksi esiin vaikeudet, jotka sopimuksen historiallinen suhde Holokaustin perintöön toi sopimuksen soveltamiseen. Peilattaessa tutkimustuloksia 1990-luvulla tapahtuneeseen sopimuksen aseman vahvistumiseen, voidaan todeta, että juuri tutkielmassa kuvattujen rakenteiden muutos osittain mahdollisti muutoksen sopimuksen asemassa. Kylmän sodan päättyminen toisaalta poisti (ainakin hetkellisesti) monia tutkielmassa kuvattuja jännitteitä, mutta myös kansainvälinen normisto on aidosti muuttunut kahden viime vuosikymmenen aikana. Kansainvälisen suojeluvelvoitteen (responsibility to protect) normi on asettanut suvereniteetin normin kunnioittamisen ehdolliseksi ihmisoikeuksien kunnioittamiselle, ja inhimillisen turvallisuuden konsepti on noussut yhä voimakkaammin turvallisuusajattelun valtavirtaan valtiolähtöisen turvallisuuskäsityksen rinnalle.

Victims of the White War or Rebellions of the Green Revolution? Bolivian Indigenous Women Prisoners' Position in the "War on Drugs" Explored through a Criminological Gaze

Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan Bolivialaisten naisvankien (alkuperäisväestön) ja globaalin huumesodan ("War on Drugs") välistä yhteyttä. Keskustelu sijoitetaan laajemmin kokan viljelyn politiikkaan ja alkuperäisväestön kulttuuriin. Kokaa viljeleviä köyhiä maalaisia, joista huomattava osa on naisia, on vangittu Boliviassa kiihtyvää tahtia viime vuosikymmeninä. Moni naisista on kokan tuotannossa ja kaupassa mukana, sillä se on monesti ainoa keino taloudelliseen selviämiseen. Yleisesti ottaen naisvangit ja naisrikolliset ovat marginaalinen ilmiö. Kansainvälisesti tarkasteltuna naisvankien suhteellinen osuus koko vankilaväestöstä on noin 5,2 % (keskiarvo). Boliviassa osuus on vaihdellut 6,1 %:n ja 17,1 %:n välillä vuosina 2000-2008. Naisvankien määrä yleisesti ottaen on ollut rajussa kasvussa, suurin syy naisten vangitsemiseen on huumausaineisiin liittyvät rikokset. Näyttää myös siltä että vähemmistöt ja etnisen taustan omaavat henkilöt ovat yliedustettuina vankilaväestössä. Bolivia seuraa tätä kansainvälistä trendiä. Tämä tutkielma on rajattu kysymyksiin Bolivian intiaaniperäisten naisten osuudesta maan huumerikollisuudessa, sekä heidän suhteellisen korkeaa vangitsemisastetta selittäviin yhteiskunnallisiin tekijöihin. Kysymykset sukupuolesta, etnisyydestä ja kokan viljelyn politiikasta ovat keskiössä. Yleisiä kriminologisia teorioita peilataan kriittisesti suhteessa aineistoon ja Bolivian kontekstiin. Huumesodan ja Bolivian ankaran huumelainsäädännön seurauksista keskustellaan kriittisesti, sekä pohditaan köyhän alkuperäisväestön massavangitsemisen tarpeellisuutta. Tutkimuskysymykseni ovat: mitkä tekijät selittävät kohtuullisen korkean intiaaniperäisten naisvankien määrän Boliviassa, ja mikä on heidän asemansa globaalissa huumesodassa? Tutkielmassa on analysoitu kvantitatiivista ja kvalitatiivista aineistoa. Päälähteenä on ollut Bolivian tilastokeskuksen tuottamat rikostilastot. Tutkielman tärkeimpänä löydöksenä voidaan pitää havaintoa, että vastoin tiettyjä olettamuksia, intiaaniperäiset naiset ovat hyvinkin aktiivisia perinteisesti miehisiksi käsitetyillä aloilla kuten rikollisuudessa ja politiikassa. Tutkielmassa osoitetaan myös, että pidätysten määrät ovat moninkertaistuneet muutamassa vuosikymmenessä. Koska kokan viljelyssä on kyse pääasiallisesti taloudellisesta toimeentulosta, tämä tutkielma kysyy, onko hengissä pysyminen rikos?

Jouko Turkan Teatterikorkeakoulun kauden yhteiskunnallinen kontekstuaalisuus vuosina 1982 - 1985

The subject of my doctoral thesis is the social contextuality of Finnish theater director, Jouko Turkka's (b. 1942) educational tenure in the Theater Academy of Finland 1982 1985. Jouko Turkka announced in the opening speech of his rectorship in 1982 that Finnish society had undergone a social shift into a new cultural age, and that actors needed new facilities like capacity, flexibility, and ability for renewal in their work. My sociological research reveals that Turkka adapted cultural practices and norms of new capitalism and new liberalism, and built a performance environment for actors' educational work, a real life simulation of a new capitalist workplace. Actors educational praxis became a cultural performance, a media spectacle. Turkka's tenure became the most commented upon and discussed era in Finnish postwar theater history. The sociological method of my thesis is to compare information of sociological research literature about new capitalist work, and Turkka's educational theater work. In regard to the conceptions of legitimation, time, dynamics, knowledge, and social narrative consubstantial changes occurred simultaneously in both contexts of workplace. I adapt systems and chaos theory's concepts and modules when researching how a theatrical performance self-organizes in a complex social space and the space of Information. Ilya Prigogine's chaos theoretic concept, fluctuation, is the central social and aesthetic concept of my thesis. The chaos theoretic conception of the world was reflected in actors' pedagogy and organizational renewals: the state of far from equilibrium was the prerequisite of creativity and progress. I interpret the social and theater's aesthetical fluctuations as the cultural metaphor of new capitalism. I define the wide cultural feedback created by Turkka's tenure of educational praxis, and ideas adapted from the social context into theater education, as an autopoietic communicative process between theater education and society: as a black box, theater converted the virtual conception of the world into a concrete form of an actor's psychophysical praxis. Theater educational praxis performed socially contextual meanings referring to a subject's position in the social change of 1980s Finland. My other theoretic framework lies close to the American performance theory, with its close ties to the social sciences, and to the tradition of rhetoric and communication: theater's rhetorical utility materializes quotidian cultural practices in a theatrical performance, and helps the audience to research social situations and cultural praxis by mirroring them and creating an explanatory frame.