Compostos de paládio(II) contendo ligantes N,S-quelantes: síntese, caracterização e investigação da atividade biológica

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Compostos de Pd(II) contendo ligantes N,S-doadores: síntese, caracterização e estudo da atividade citotóxica

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Skeletal muscle major histocompatibility complex class I and II expression differences in adult and juvenile dermatomyositis

OBJECTIVE: To analyze major histocompatibility complex expression in the muscle fibers of juvenile and adult dermatomyositis. METHOD: In total, 28 untreated adult dermatomyositis patients, 28 juvenile dermatomyositis patients (Bohan and Peter's criteria) and a control group consisting of four dystrophic and five Pompe's disease patients were analyzed. Routine histological and immunohistochemical (major histocompatibility complex I and II, StreptoABComplex/HRP, Dakopatts) analyses were performed on serial frozen muscle sections. Inflammatory cells, fiber damage, perifascicular atrophy and increased connective tissue were analyzed relative to the expression of major histocompatibility complexes I and II, which were assessed as negatively or positively stained fibers in 10 fields (200X). RESULTS: The mean ages at disease onset were 42.0 +/- 15.9 and 7.3 +/- 3.4 years in adult and juvenile dermatomyositis, respectively, and the symptom durations before muscle biopsy were similar in both groups. No significant differences were observed regarding gender, ethnicity and frequency of organ involvement, except for higher creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase levels in adult dermatomyositis (p<0.050). Moreover, a significantly higher frequency of major histocompatibility complex I (96.4% vs. 50.0%, p<0.001) compared with major histocompatibility complex II expression (14.3% vs. 53.6%, p = 0.004) was observed in juvenile dermatomyositis. Fiber damage (p = 0.006) and increased connective tissue (p<0.001) were significantly higher in adult dermatomyositis compared with the presence of perifascicular atrophy (p<0.001). The results of the histochemical and histological data did not correlate with the demographic data or with the clinical and laboratory features. CONCLUSION: The overexpression of major histocompatibility complex I was an important finding for the diagnosis of both groups, particularly for juvenile dermatomyositis, whereas there was lower levels of expression of major histocompatibility complex II than major histocompatibility complex I. This finding was particularly apparent in juvenile dermatomyositis.

Observation of vinylidene emission in mixed phosphine/diimine complexes of Ru(II) at room temperature in solution

The mixed ruthenium(II) complexes trans-[RuCl(2)(PPh(3))(2)(bipy)] (1), trans-[RuCl(2)(PPh(3))(2)(Me(2)bipy)](2), cis-[RuCl(2)(dcype)(bipy)](3), cis-[RuCl(2)(dcype)(Me(2)bipy)](4) (PPh(3) = triphenylphosphine, dcype = 1,2-bis(dicyclohexylphosphino)ethane, bipy = 2,2'-bipyridine, Me(2)bipy = 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine) were used as precursors to synthesize the associated vinylidene complexes. The complexes [RuCl(=C=CHPh)(PPh(3))(2)(bipy)]PF(6) (5), [RuCl(=C=CHPh)(PPh(3))(2)(Me(2)bipy)]PF(6) (6), [RuCl(=C=CHPh)(dcype)(bipy)]PF(6) (7), [RuCl(=C=CHPh)(dcype)(bipy)]PF(6) (8) were characterized and their spectral, electrochemical, photochemical and photophysical properties were examined. The emission assigned to the pi-pi* excited state from the vinylidene ligand is irradiation wavelength (340, 400, 430 nm) and solvent (CH(2)Cl(2), CH(3)CN, EtOH/MeOH) dependent. The cyclic voltammograms of (6) and (7) show a reversible metal oxidation peak and two successive ligand reductions in the +1.5-(-0.64) V range. The reduction of the vinylidene leads to the formation of the acetylide complex, but due the hydrogen abstraction the process is irreversible. The studies described here suggest that for practical applications such as functional materials, nonlinear optics, building blocks and supramolecular photochemistry. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Spectroscopic characterization and crystal structure of cis-Bis(N-(2-benzoyl)-N ',N '-diphenylthioureato-k O-2,S)nickel(II)

The title compound [Ni(C20H15N2OS)(2)] is prepared by the reaction of metal acetate with the corresponding acylthiourea derivative. The complex is characterized by elemental analysis, IR, H-1 and C-13 NMR, and its structure is determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction. The Ni(II) ion is coordinated by the S and O atoms of two N-benzoyl-N',N'-diphenylthiourea ligands in a slightly distorted square-planar coordination geometry. The two O and two S atoms are mutually cis to each other. The substance crystallizes triclinic (P-1 space group) with cell dimensions a = 10.7262(9) , b = 12.938(3) , c = 14.2085(12) , alpha = 74.650(4)A degrees, beta = 78.398(4)A degrees, gamma = 68.200(5)A degrees, and two formula units in the unit cell. The structure is very close to the related N-(2-furoyl) Ni complex reported previously.

Dinuclear copper(II) complexes with valsartan. Synthesis, characterization and cytotoxicity

Two novel dinuclear complexes involving the antihypertensive drug valsartan and copper(II) ion have been prepared in water and DMSO. The complex compositions were determined as: [Cu(vals)(H(2)O)(3)](2)center dot 6H(2)O and [Cu(vals)(H(2)O)(2)DMSO](2)center dot 2H(2)O. They were thoroughly characterized by elemental and thermal analysis, spectrophotometric titrations and UV-visible, diffuse reflectance, FTIR, Raman and EPR spectroscopies. No effect of the ligand on two tested osteoblastic cell lines in culture (one normal MOT3E1 and one tumoral UMR106) was observed in concentrations up to 100 mu M. Higher concentrations of Valsartan are required to induce cytotoxicity in both cell lines. The antiproliferative effect of the tested complex ([Cu(vals) (H(2)O)(3)](2)center dot 6H(2)O) in a dose-response manner, was higher in the UMR106 osteoblastic cell line than that of the MC3T3E1 normal line at concentrations >= 100 mu M. Morphological alterations are in accordance with proliferative observations. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Thermodynamics of Axial Substitution and Kinetics of Reactions with Amino Acids for the Paddlewheel Complex Tetrakis(acetato)chloridodiruthenium(II,III)

The known paddlewheel, tetrakis(acetato)chloridodiruthenium(II,III), offers a versatile synthetic route to a novel class of antitumor diruthenium(II,III) metallo drugs, where the equatorial ligands are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory carboxylates. This complex was studied here as a soluble starting prototype model for antitumor analogues to elucidate the reactivity of the [Ru-2(CH3COO)(4)](+) framework. Thermodynamic studies on equilibration reactions for axial substitution of water by chloride and kinetic studies on reactions of the diaqua complexes with the amino acids glycine, cysteine, histidine, and tryptophan were performed. The standard thermodynamic reaction parameters Delta H degrees, Delta S degrees, and Delta V degrees were determined and showed that both of the sequential axial substitution reactions are enthalpy driven. Kinetic rate laws and rate constants were determined for the axial substitution reactions of coordinated water by the amino acids that gave the corresponding aqua(amino acid)-Ru-2 substituted species. The results revealed that the [Ru-2(CH3COO)(4)](+) paddlewheel framework remained stable during the axial ligand substitution reactions and was also mostly preserved in the presence of the amino acids.

Photo- and redox-active supramolecular systems containing metal complexes

The aim of this Ph.D. project has been the photophysical and photochemical characterization of new photo- and redox-active supramolecular systems. In particular we studied two different classes of compounds: metal complexes and dendrimers. Two different families of bis-cyclometalated neutral Ir(III) complexes are presented and their photophysical properties are discussed. The first family of complexes contains two 2-phenylpyridyl (ppy) or 2-(4,6-difluorophenyl)pyridyl (F2ppy) cyclometalated ligands and an ancillary ligand constituted by a phenol-oxazoline (phox), which can be substituted in the third position with a fluorine group (Fphox). In the second part of this study, we present another family of bis-cyclometalated Ir(III) complexes in which the ancillary ligand could be a chiral or an achiral bis-oxazoline (box). We report on their structural, electrochemical, photophysical, and photochemical properties. Complexes containing phox and Fphox ancillary ligands show blue luminescence with very high quantum yield, while complexes with box ligands do not show particularly interesting photophysical properties. Surprisingly these complexes give an unexpected photoreaction when irradiated with UV light in presence of dioxygen. This photoreaction originates a stable, strong blue emitting and particularly interesting photoproduct. Three successive generations of a family of polyethyleneglycol (PEG)-coated Pd(II) tetrabenzoporphyrin (PdTBP)-based dendritic nanoprobes are presented, and their ability to sensitize singlet oxygen and inflict cellular photodamage are discussed. It was found that the size of the dendrimer has practically no effect on the singlet oxygen sensitization efficiency, that approximate the unity, in spite of the strong attenuation of the triplet quenching rate with an increase in the dendrimer generation. Nevertheless, when compared against a commonly used singlet oxygen sensitizer, as Photofrin, the phosphorescent probes were found to be non-phototoxic. The lack of phototoxicity is presumably due to the inability of PEGylated probes to associate with cell surfaces and/or penetrate cellular membranes. The results suggest that protected phosphorescent probes can be safely used for oxygen measurements in biological systems in vivo. A new family of two photoswitchable (G0(Azo) and G1(Azo)) dendrimers with an azobenzene core, two cyclam units as coordination sites for metal ions, and luminescent naphthalene units at the periphery have been characterized and their coordination abilities have been studied. Because of their proximity, the various functional groups of the dendrimer may interact, so that the properties of the dendrimers are different from those exhibited by the separated functional units. Both the naphthalene fluorescence and the azobenzene photoisomerization can be observed in the dendrimer, but it has been shown that (i) the fluorescent excited state of the naphthalene units is substantially quenched by excimer and exciplex formation and by energy transfer to the azobenzene units, and (ii) in the latter case the fluorescence quenching is accompanied by the photosensitized isomerization of the trans → cis, and, with higher efficiency, the cis → trans reaction. Complexation of these dendrimers, both trans and cis isomers, with Zn(II) ions shows that complexes of 1:1 and 2:1 metal per dendrimer stoichiometry are formed showing different photophysical and photochemical properties compared to the corresponding free ligands. Practically unitary efficiency of the sensitized isomerization of trans → cis and cis → trans reaction is observed, as well as a slight increase in the naphthalene monomer emission. These results are consistent with the coordination of the cyclam amine units with Zn(II), which prevents exciplex formation. No indication of a concomitant coordination of both cyclam to a single metal ion has been obtained both for trans and cis isomer.

New functionalized ligands for luminescent metal complexes: from design to applications

The synthesis of luminescent metal complexes is a very challenging task since they can be regarded as the starting point for a lot of different areas. Luminescent complexes, in fact, can be used for technological, industrial, medical and biological applications. During my PhD I worked with different metals having distinguishing intrinsic properties that make them different from each other and, in particular, more or less suitable for the different possible uses. Iridium complexes show the best photophysical properties: they have high quantum yields, very long lifetimes and possess easily tunable emissions throughout the visible range. On the other hand, Iridium is very expensive and scarcely available. The aim of my work concerning this metal was, therefore, to synthesize ligands able not only to form luminescent complexes, but also able to add functionalities to the final complex, increasing its properties, and therefore its possible practical uses. Since Re(I) derivatives have been reported to be suitable as probes in biological system, and the use of Re(I) reduces the costs, the synthesized bifunctional ligands containing a pyridine-triazole and a biotin unit were employed to obtain new Re(I) luminescent probes. Part of my work involved the design and synthesis of new ligands able to form stable complexes with Eu(III) and Ce(III) salts, in order to obtain an emission in the range of visible light: these two metals are quite cheap and relatively non-toxic compared to other heavy metals. Finally, I plan to synthesize organic derivatives that already possessed an emission thanks to the presence of other many chromophoric groups and can be able to link the Zinc (II), a low cost and especially non-toxic “green” metal. Zinc has not its own emission, but when it sticks to ligands, it increases their photophysical properties.

Modellkomplexe zur Untersuchung der Radikal-Metall-Wechselwirkung innerhalb des wasseroxidierenden Zentrums im Photosystem II

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden zweikernige Modellkomplexe zur Untersuchung der Radikal-Metallwechselwirkung innerhalb des wasseroxidierenden Zentrums des Photo¬systems II synthetisiert und eine magneto-strukturelle Korrelation dieser Komplexe erstellt. Als Liganden wurden diverse sechs- bis siebenzähnige Chelatliganden verwendet, welche über zwei Koordinationstaschen und eine verbrückende Phenolatgruppe verfügen. Zwei daran gebundene Manganionen liegen in einer wohl definierten Umgebung nicht koordinativ gesättigt vor. An die freien Koordinationsstellen können weitere ein bis zwei Brückenliganden binden, bei denen es sich in dieser Arbeit hauptsächlich um Carboxylate handelt. Durch die Verwendung eines diamagnetischen Brückenliganden konnte die magnetische Spin-Spin-Austauschwechselwirkung zwischen den spintragenden Manganionen über die verbrücken¬de Phenolatgruppe bestimmt werden. Komplexe, welche über Manganionen in den gleichen Oxidationsstufen, aber über unterschiedliche Carboxylatbrückenliganden verfügen, weisen ähnliche magnetische Austauschwechselwirkungen zwischen den Metallzentren auf. Diese Beobachtung konnte durch eine strukturelle Ähnlichkeit dieser Komplexe erklärt werden. Mittels Aufsummieren der Bindungslängen der verbrückenden Phenolateinheit zu beiden Zentralionen kann innerhalb dieser Komplexe jeweils die Länge des Wechselwirkungspfades erhalten werden, welcher die magnetische Austauschwechselwirkung maßgeblich beein¬flusst. Je länger der Wechselwirkungspfad ist, desto kleiner ist die Austausch¬wechsel¬wirkung. Durch Austausch der diamagnetischen Carboxylate durch paramagnetische benzoat¬substituierte Nitronyl Nitroxid Radikale wurden den Komplexen ein bis zwei weitere Spinzentren hinzugefügt, welche mit den Spins der Zentralionen wechselwirken können. Simulationen der magnetischen Suszeptibilitätsmessungen liefern Werte für die magneti¬schen Austausch¬wechselwirkungen zwischen den Nitronyl Nitroxid Radikalen und den Manganionen, die in allen Fällen schwach ferromagnetisch zwischen 0 und 4,7 cm-1 sind. In einer Auftragung dieser Austauschwechselwirkungen gegen die Mangan-Carboxylat-Bindungs¬längen von strukturell charakterisierten äquivalenten acetatverbrückten Komplexen, kann eine lineare Abhängigkeit gezeigt werden.

Glycerol oxidehydration to acrylic acid on complex mixed-metal oxides

The project of this Ph.D. thesis is based on a co-supervised collaboration between Università di Bologna, ALMA MATER STUDIORUM (Italy) and Instituto de Tecnología Química, Universitat Politècnica de València ITQ-UPV (Spain). This Ph.D. thesis is about the synthesis, characterization and catalytic testing of complex mixed-oxide catalysts mainly related to the family of Hexagonal Tungsten Bronzes (HTBs). These materials have been little explored as catalysts, although they have a great potential as multifunctional materials. Their peculiar acid properties can be coupled to other functionalities (e.g. redox sites) by isomorphous substitution of tungsten atoms with other transition metals such as vanadium, niobium and molybdenum. In this PhD thesis, it was demonstrated how it is possible to prepare substituted-HTBs by hydrothermal synthesis; these mixed-oxide were fully characterize by a number of physicochemical techniques such as XPS, HR-TEM, XAS etc. They were also used as catalysts for the one-pot glycerol oxidehydration to acrylic acid; this reaction might represent a viable chemical route to solve the important issue related to the co-production of glycerin along the biodiesel production chain. Acrylic acid yields as high as 51% were obtained and important structure-reactivity correlations were proved to govern the catalytic performance; only fine tuning of acid and redox properties as well as the in-framework presence of vanadium are fundamental to achieve noteworthy yields into the acid monomer. The overall results reported herein might represent an important contribution for future applications of HTBs in catalysis as well as a general guideline for a multifaceted approach for their physicochemical characterization.

Structural analysis of the major lightharvesting complex II by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) : comparison between monomers and trimers

Der Haupt-Lichtsammenkomplex II (LHCII) höherer Pflanzen ist das häufigsternMembranprotein der Welt und in die chloroplastidäre Thylakoidmembran integriert. DerrnLHCII kann als Modellsystem genutzt werden, um die Funktionsweise vonrnMembranproteinen besser zu verstehen, da 96 % seiner Struktur kristallografisch aufgelöstrnist und er in rekombinanter Form in vitro rückgefaltet werden kann. Hierbei entsteht einrnvoll funktionaler Protein-Pigment.Komplex, der nahezu identisch mit der in vivo Varianternist.rnElektronenparamagnetischen Resonanz (EPR) Spektroskopie ist eine hoch sensitive undrnideal geeignete Methode, um die Strukturdynamik von Proteinen zu untersuchen. Hierzurnist eine ortsspezifische Markierung mit Spinsonden notwendig, die kovalent an Cysteinernbinden. Möglich wird dies, indem sorgfältig ausgewählte Aminosäuren gegen Cysteinerngetauscht werden, ohne dass die Funktionsweise des LHCII beeinträchtigt wird.rnIm Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die Stabilität des verwendeten Spinmarkers und diernProbenqualität verbessert, indem alle Schritte der Probenpräparation untersucht wurden.rnMithilfe dieser Erkenntnisse konnte sowohl die Gefahr einer Proteinaggregation als auchrnein Verlust des EPR Signals deutlich vermindert werden. In Kombination mit derrngleichzeitigen Etablierung des Q-Band EPR können nun deutlich geringer konzentrierternProben zuverlässig vermessen werden. Darüber hinaus wurde eine reproduzierbarernMethode entwickelt, um heterogene Trimere herzustellen. Diese bestehen aus einemrndoppelt markierten Monomer und zwei unmarkierten Monomeren und erlauben es, diernkristallografisch unvollständig aufgelöste N-terminale Domäne im monomeren undrntrimeren Assemblierungsgrad zu untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse konnten einerseits diernVermutung bestätigen, dass diese Domäne im Vergleich zum starren Proteinkern sehrrnflexibel ist und andererseits, dass sie in Monomeren noch mobiler ist als in Trimeren.rnZudem wurde die lumenale Schleifenregion bei unterschiedlichen pH Werten undrnvariierender Pigmentzusammensetzung untersucht, da dieser Bereich sehr kontroversrndiskutiert wird. Die Messergebnisse offenbarten, dass diese Region starre und flexiblerernSektionen aufweist. Während der pH Wert keinen Einfluss auf die Konformation hatte,rnzeigte sich, dass die Abwesenheit von Neoxanthin zu einer Änderung der Konformationrnführt. Weiterführende Analysen der strukturellen Dynamik des LHCII in einerrnLipidmembran konnten hingegen nicht durchgeführt werden, da dies eine gerichteternInsertion des rückgefalteten Proteins in Liposomen erfordert, was trotz intensiverrnVersuche nicht zum Erfolg führte.

Bio-inspired polymer-supported nitrido molybdenum(VI) complexes for ammonia synthesis − reactivity towards protons and electrons : EPR investigations on paramagnetic molybdenum(V) and copper(II) complexes

Die biologische Stickstofffixierung durch Molybdän-haltige Nitrogenasen sowie die Erforschung des zugrundeliegenden komplexen Mechanismus (N2-Aktivierung an Metall-Zentren, 6-fache Protonierung und Reduktion, N–N Bindungsspaltung unter Bildung von Ammoniak) ist von erheblichem Interesse. Insbesondere Molybdän-Komplexe wurden bereits erfolgreich als Modellverbindungen für die Untersuchung elementarer Einzelschritte der N2-Aktivierung eingesetzt. Durch die Verwendung von Triamidoamin-Liganden ist es Schrock et al. sogar gelungen mehrere Katalysezyklen zu durchlaufen und einen Mechanismus zu formulieren. Trotz der sterisch anspruchsvollen Substituenten in den Schrock-Komplexen ist die Umsatzrate dieses homogenen Katalysators, aufgrund Komplex-Deaktivierung infolge intermolekularer Reaktionen wie Dimerisierung und Disproportionierung, limitiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden einige dieser Herausforderungen angegangen und die aktiven Spezies auf einer Festphase immobilisiert, um intermolekulare Reaktionen durch räumliche Isolierung der Komplexe zu unterdrücken.rnEin Polymer-verankertes Analogon des Schrock Nitrido-Molybdän(VI)-Komplexes wurde auf einem neuen Reaktionsweg synthetisiert. Dieser beinhaltet nur einen einzigen Reaktionsschritt, um die funktionelle Gruppe „MoN“ einzuführen. Protonierung des immobilisierten Nitrido-Molybdän(VI)-Komplexes LMoVIN (L = Polymer-verankerter Triamidoamin-Ligand) mit 2,6-Lutidinium liefert den entsprechenden Imido-Molybdän(VI)-Komplex. Durch anschließende Ein-Elektronen-Reduktion mit Cobaltocen wird der Polymer-angebundene Imido-Molybdän(V)-Komplex erhalten, bewiesen durch EPR-Spektroskopie (g1,2,3 = 1.989, 1.929, 1.902). Durch die Immobilisierung und die effektive räumliche Separation der Reaktionszentren auf der Festphase werden bimolekulare Nebenreaktionen, die oft in homogenen Systemen auftreten, unterdrückt. Dies ermöglicht zum ersten Mal die Darstellung des Imido-Molybdän(V)-Intermediates des Schrock-Zyklus.rnEPR-Spektren des als Spin-Label eingeführten immobilisierten Nitrato-Kupfer(II)-Komplexes wurden unter verschiedenen Bedingungen (Lösungsmittel, Temperatur) aufgenommen, wobei sich eine starke Abhängigkeit zwischen der Zugänglichkeit und Reaktivität der immobilisierten Reaktionszentren und der Art des Lösungsmittels zeigte. Somit wurde die Reaktivität von LMoVIN gegenüber Protonen und Elektronen, welches zur Bildung von NH3 führt, unter Verwendung verschiedener Lösungsmittel untersucht und optimiert. Innerhalb des kugelförmigen Polymers verläuft die Protonierung und Reduktion von LMoVIN stufenweise. Aktive Zentren, die sich an der „äußeren Schale“ des Polymers befinden, sind gut zugänglich und reagieren schnell nach H+/e− Zugabe. Aktive Zentren im „Inneren des Polymers“ hingegen sind schlechter zugänglich und zeigen langsame diffusions-kontrollierte Reaktionen, wobei drei H+/e− Schritte gefolgt von einer Ligandenaustausch-Reaktion erforderlich sind, um NH3 freizusetzen: LMoVIN  LMoVNH  LMoIVNH2  LMoIIINH3 und anschließender Ligandenaustausch führt zur Freisetzung von NH3.rnIn einem weiteren Projekt wurde der Bis(ddpd)-Kupfer(II)-Komplex EPR-spektroskopisch in Hinblick auf Jahn−Teller-Verzerrung und -Dynamik untersucht. Dabei wurden die EPR-Spektren bei variabler Temperatur (70−293 K) aufgenommen. Im Festkörperspektrum bei T &lt; 100 K erscheint der Kupfer(II)-Komplex als gestreckter Oktaeder, wohingegen das EPR-Spektrum bei höheren Temperaturen g-Werte aufzeigt, die einer pseudo-gestauchten oktaedrischen Kupfer(II)-Spezies zuzuordnen sind. Diese Tatsache wird einem intramolekularen dynamischen Jahn−Teller Phänomen zugeschrieben, welcher bei 100 K eingefroren wird.

Narcolepsy: autoimmunity, effector T cell activation due to infection, or T cell independent, major histocompatibility complex class II induced neuronal loss?

Human narcolepsy with cataplexy is a neurological disorder, which develops due to a deficiency in hypocretin producing neurons in the hypothalamus. There is a strong association with human leucocyte antigens HLA-DR2 and HLA-DQB1*0602. The disease typically starts in adolescence. Recent developments in narcolepsy research support the hypothesis of narcolepsy being an immune-mediated disease. Narcolepsy is associated with polymorphisms of the genes encoding T cell receptor alpha chain, tumour necrosis factor alpha and tumour necrosis factor receptor II. Moreover the rate of streptococcal infection is increased at onset of narcolepsy. The hallmarks of anti-self reactions in the tissue--namely upregulation of major histocompatibility antigens and lymphocyte infiltrates--are missing in the hypothalamus. These findings are questionable because they were obtained by analyses performed many years after onset of disease. In some patients with narcolepsy autoantibodies to Tribbles homolog 2, which is expressed by hypocretin neurons, have been detected recently. Immune-mediated destruction of hypocretin producing neurons may be mediated by microglia/macrophages that become activated either by autoantigen specific CD4(+) T cells or superantigen stimulated CD8(+) T cells, or independent of T cells by activation of DQB1*0602 signalling. Activation of microglia and macrophages may lead to the release of neurotoxic molecules such as quinolinic acid, which has been shown to cause selective destruction of hypocretin neurons in the hypothalamus.