Naisjohtajat – miksi heitä ei ole ja mitä siitä? - miesjohtajien ja ei-johtavassa asemassa olevien naisten näkemyksiä case-yritys x:ssä

Joidenkin tutkimusten mukaan naisten vähäinen määrä johdossa voi olla uhka organisaatiolle. Lasikattoilmiöllä tarkoitetaan naisten urakehityksen katkeamista tietylle tasolle ylimmän johdon alapuolelle ikään kuin naisten ja tuon ylimmän tason välissä olisi lasinen, näkymätön katto, sukupuolistereotypioiden muodostama este. Yksi yleinen lasikaton selitysten kolmijako on henkilökohtaiset, organisatoriset ja yhteiskunnalliset tekijät. (Lämsä & Hautala 2004, 252). Hoyt (2007, 270-278) tekee kolmijaon seuraavasti: inhimillinen pääoma, sukupuolierot ja ennakkoluulot. Yritys X:n keskijohdossa työskentelee yksi nainen, ylimmässä johdossa ei yhtäkään. Tutkimuksessa halu-taan selvittää miesjohtajien ja ei-johtavassa asemassa olevien naisten käsitystä siitä, onko yritys x:ssä lasi-kattoa, miksi naisjohtajia on niin vähän ja "mitä siitä" ts. onko mitään ongelmaa olemassakaan. Tässä tutkimuksessa pohditaan diskurssianalyysin keinoin, miten yritys X:ssä puhutaan naisjohtajuusaiheesta, millai-seksi sukupuolen merkitys työelämässä määritellään ja mitä ajatellaan naisten kykenevyydestä johtajiksi. Naturalisoiva diskurssi oli vahva niin miesjohtajien ja ei-johtavassa asemassa olevien naisten puheessa. Sen lisäksi hahmotellaan familistista, empiiristä, humanistista ja historiallista diskurssia naisjohtajuuspuheesta. Diskurssien yhteenkietominen hegemonisoimisstrategiana kuvaa tapaa, jolla palasia muista diskursseista käytetään tukemaan tiettyä toista diskurssia (Jokinen et al. 1993c, 95) Miesjohtajien puheessa naisten keskeiset, ominaisuudet - liiallinen tarkkuus ja huolellisuus yhdistettynä epävarmuuteen - ovat ongelmallisia johtajanuran kannalta. Jos näistä johtajuuden kannalta negatiivisista ominaisuuksista ei jostain syystä kuitenkaan muodostuisi uralla etenemisen estettä, äitiys ja perheellisyys "luonnollisesti" tekee tämän. Aiheet myös kietoutuvat yhteen: äitiys ja vastuu perheestä lisäävät naisten huolellisuutta, tarkkuutta ja epävarmuutta entisestään. Lisäksi äitiyslomat ja työhön käytettävissä oleva aika ja puut-tuva halu käyttää elämästä iso osa uranluomiseen ovat johtajaksi etenemisen esteitä. Miesjohtajien mukaan tämä on jossain määrin ongelma, kun heterogeenisyyttä johtamiseen kuitenkin tarvittaisiin, mutta loppujen lopuksi kuitenkin melko epäkiinnostava ja pieni ongelma; ongelma ei miesten mielestä johdu miesten tai yhteiskunnallisista asenteista, vaan naisista itsestään ja he tarvitsevat uralla edetäkseen tukea, rohkaisua ja henkilöstöpankkeja, joita miesjohtajat voivat tuottaa. Johtaminen ylipäänsä ei ole miesjohtajien mielestä hirveän kiinnostavaa. Jos naiset (kaikesta edellä sanotusta huolimatta) etenevät yritysten johtoon, eivät he tule siellä toimeen keskenään. Kaiken kaikkiaan koko naisjohtajuusaihe ei ole kovin kiinnostava ja naisjohtajuuden vähäisyyden (mahdollisen) ongelman ratkaisee aika uuden, tasa-arvoisemman sukupolven myötä. Naishaastateltujen näkökulmasta sen sijaan naisilla on pyrkyä johtotehtäviin - joskaan ei samassa määrin kuin miehillä. Naishaastateltujen mukaan miehet suosivat toisiaan työelämässä ja naiset kohtaavat asenteita, joita vastaan joutuvat taistelemaan ja tästä syystä johtajien joukossa on niin vähän naisia. Historialliset tekijät pitävät asenteita yllä. Perheellisyys on naisille suurempi uraeste kuin miehille, "luonnollisesti". Naishaastateltujen mielestä naisten vähäisyys johdossa on merkittävä ongelma, koska naisilla on erityislaatuisia ominaisuuksia, joista olisi hyötyä tehtävässä. Naishaastateltujen puheessa miesten ominaisuuksia vastaavasti vähäteltiin. Naisjohtajien vähäisyyden ongelmalle ei naishaastateltujen mielestä kuitenkaan ole tehtävissä paljonkaan: miesten ja yhteiskunnan asenteiden pitäisi muuttua, mutta keinoja tähän ei esitetä, sen sijaan naisten itsensä pitäisi vain "yrittää vielä kovemmin".

Collectiveness within startup teams – Leading the way to initiating and managing collective pursuit of opportunities in organizational contexts

While traditional entrepreneurship literature addresses the pursuit of entrepreneurial opportunities to a solo entrepreneur, scholars increasingly agree that new ventures are often founded and operated by entrepreneurial teams as collective efforts especially in hightechnology industries. Researchers also suggest that team ventures are more likely to survive and succeed than ventures founded by the individual entrepreneur although specific challenges might relate to multiple individuals being involved in joint entrepreneurial action. In addition to new ventures, entrepreneurial teams are seen central for organizing work in established organizations since the teams are able to create major product and service innovations that drive organizational success. Acknowledgement of the entrepreneurial teams in various organizational contexts has challenged the notion on the individual entrepreneur. However, considering that entrepreneurial teams represent a collective-level phenomenon that bases on interactions between organizational members, entrepreneurial teams may not have been studied as indepth as could be expected from the point of view of the team-level, rather than the individual or the individuals in the team. Many entrepreneurial team studies adopt the individualized view of entrepreneurship and examine the team members’ aggregate characteristics or the role of a lead entrepreneur. The previous understandings might not offer a comprehensive and indepth enough understanding of collectiveness within entrepreneurial teams and team venture performance that often relates to the team-level issues in particular. In addition, as the collective-level of entrepreneurial teams has been approached in various ways in the existing literatures, the phenomenon has been difficult to understand in research and practice. Hence, there is a need to understand entrepreneurial teams at the collective-level through a systematic and comprehensive perspective. This study takes part in the discussions on entrepreneurial teams. The overall objective of this study is to offer a description and understanding of collectiveness within entrepreneurial teams beyond individual(s). The research questions of the study are: 1) what collectiveness within entrepreneurial teams stands for, what constitutes the basic elements of it, and who are included in it, 2) why, how, and when collectiveness emerges or reinforces within entrepreneurial teams, and 3) why collectiveness within entrepreneurial teams matters and how it could be developed or supported. In order to answer the above questions, this study bases on three approaches, two set of empirical data, two analysis techniques, and conceptual study. The first data set consists of 12 qualitative semi-structured interviews with business school students who are seen as prospective entrepreneurs. The data is approached through a social constructionist perspective and analyzed through discourse analysis. The second data set bases on a qualitative multiplecase study approach that aims at theory elaboration. The main data consists of 14 individual and four group semi-structured thematic interviews with members of core entrepreneurial teams of four team startups in high-technology industries. The secondary data includes publicly available documents. This data set is approached through a critical realist perspective and analyzed through systematic thematic analysis. The study is completed through a conceptual study that aims at building a theoretical model of collective-level entrepreneurship drawing from existing literatures on organizational theory and social-psychology. The theoretical work applies a positivist perspective. This study consists of two parts. The first part includes an overview that introduces the research background, knowledge gaps and objectives, research strategy, and key concepts. It also outlines the existing knowledge of entrepreneurial team literature, presents and justifies the choices of paradigms and methods, summarizes the publications, and synthesizes the findings through answering the above mentioned research questions. The second part consists of five publications that address independent research questions but all enable to answer the research questions set for this study as a whole. The findings of this study suggest a map of relevant concepts and their relationships that help grasp collectiveness within entrepreneurial teams. The analyses conducted in the publications suggest that collectiveness within entrepreneurial teams stands for cognitive and affective structures in-between team members including elements of collective entity, collective idea of business, collective effort, collective attitudes and motivations, and collective feelings. Collectiveness within entrepreneurial teams also stands for specific joint entrepreneurial action components in which the structures are constructed. The action components reflect equality and democracy, and open and direct communication in particular. Collectiveness emerges because it is a powerful tool for overcoming individualized barriers to entrepreneurship and due to collectively oriented desire for, collective value orientation to, demand for, and encouragement to team entrepreneurship. Collectiveness emerges and reinforces in processes of joint creation and realization of entrepreneurial opportunities including joint analysis and planning of the opportunities and strategies, decision-making and realization of the opportunities, and evaluation, feedback, and sanctions of entrepreneurial action. Collectiveness matters because it is relevant for potential future entrepreneurs and because it affects the ways collective ventures are initiated and managed. Collectiveness also matters because it is a versatile, dynamic, and malleable phenomenon and the ideas of it can be applied across organizational contexts that require team work in discovering or creating and realizing new opportunities. This study further discusses how the findings add to the existing knowledge of entrepreneurial team literature and how the ideas can be applied in educational, managerial, and policy contexts.

Detecting Deceit – Guessing or Assessing? Study on the Applicability of Veracity Assessment Methods in Human Intelligence

Intelligence from a human source, that is falsely thought to be true, is potentially more harmful than a total lack of it. The veracity assessment of the gathered intelligence is one of the most important phases of the intelligence process. Lie detection and veracity assessment methods have been studied widely but a comprehensive analysis of these methods’ applicability is lacking. There are some problems related to the efficacy of lie detection and veracity assessment. According to a conventional belief an almighty lie detection method, that is almost 100% accurate and suitable for any social encounter, exists. However, scientific studies have shown that this is not the case, and popular approaches are often over simplified. The main research question of this study was: What is the applicability of veracity assessment methods, which are reliable and are based on scientific proof, in terms of the following criteria? o Accuracy, i.e. probability of detecting deception successfully o Ease of Use, i.e. easiness to apply the method correctly o Time Required to apply the method reliably o No Need for Special Equipment o Unobtrusiveness of the method In order to get an answer to the main research question, the following supporting research questions were answered first: What kinds of interviewing and interrogation techniques exist and how could they be used in the intelligence interview context, what kinds of lie detection and veracity assessment methods exist that are reliable and are based on scientific proof and what kind of uncertainty and other limitations are included in these methods? Two major databases, Google Scholar and Science Direct, were used to search and collect existing topic related studies and other papers. After the search phase, the understanding of the existing lie detection and veracity assessment methods was established through a meta-analysis. Multi Criteria Analysis utilizing Analytic Hierarchy Process was conducted to compare scientifically valid lie detection and veracity assessment methods in terms of the assessment criteria. In addition, a field study was arranged to get a firsthand experience of the applicability of different lie detection and veracity assessment methods. The Studied Features of Discourse and the Studied Features of Nonverbal Communication gained the highest ranking in overall applicability. They were assessed to be the easiest and fastest to apply, and to have required temporal and contextual sensitivity. The Plausibility and Inner Logic of the Statement, the Method for Assessing the Credibility of Evidence and the Criteria Based Content Analysis were also found to be useful, but with some limitations. The Discourse Analysis and the Polygraph were assessed to be the least applicable. Results from the field study support these findings. However, it was also discovered that the most applicable methods are not entirely troublefree either. In addition, this study highlighted that three channels of information, Content, Discourse and Nonverbal Communication, can be subjected to veracity assessment methods that are scientifically defensible. There is at least one reliable and applicable veracity assessment method for each of the three channels. All of the methods require disciplined application and a scientific working approach. There are no quick gains if high accuracy and reliability is desired. Since most of the current lie detection studies are concentrated around a scenario, where roughly half of the assessed people are totally truthful and the other half are liars who present a well prepared cover story, it is proposed that in future studies lie detection and veracity assessment methods are tested against partially truthful human sources. This kind of test setup would highlight new challenges and opportunities for the use of existing and widely studied lie detection methods, as well as for the modern ones that are still under development.

Opettajattareksi sopimaton? Diskurssianalyysi seminaarien naisoppilaiden poikkeavuuden tulkinnasta ja kontrollista Suomessa 1860 -1960 -luvuilla

Tutkimus sijoittuu konstruktivismin ja kasvatuksen historian alueille. Tutkin diskurssianalyysin keinoin miten opettajiksi opiskelevien tyttö- ja naisoppilaiden poikkeavuuden tulkintoja on luotu, ylläpidetty ja uusinnettu 1860-1960 -lukujen Suomessa. Huomio on siinä miten opettajaseminaarien tyttö- ja naisoppilaiden käyttäytymistä on tulkittu poikkeavaksi opettajakokousten pöytäkirjojen teksteissä; miten poikkeavuutta on luotu diskursseilla - ja miten diskurssit ja niiden tulkinnat ovat olleet sukupuolitettuja. Tutkimusaiheeseen diskurssianalyysi soveltuu niin metodiksi kuin viitekehykseksikin, koska poikkeavuuden, normaalin ja epänormaalin rakentuminen tapahtuu kielenkäytön, vuorovaikutuksen ja sosiaalisen toiminnan keskinäisissä suhteissa. Pyrkimyksenä on tietoisuuden lisääminen niistä prosesseista, joissa näitä poikkeavuuden tulkintoja luotiin. Aineistoni koostuu rangaistustapauksista, jotka ovat kirjattu viiden opettajaseminaarin opettajakokousten pöytäkirjoihin vuosien 1863 - 1962 välisenä aikana. Rikkomustapauksia on yhteensä 1436, joista 194 tyttöoppilaiden tekemiä. Ajanjakso alkaa kansalaisyhteiskunnan ja kansanopetuksen synnystä ja päättyy peruskoulun alkuvaiheisiin. Vaikka seminaarien virallinen ja julkinen säännöstö oli kohdistettu yhtälailla nais- ja miesoppilaille, sisälsivät diskursseihin kätkeytyvät normistot seminaarien tyttö- ja naisoppilaille omat erilliset rajat, joiden ylittäminen teki heistä poikkeavia. Tyttö- ja naisoppilaiden poikkeavuus opettajaseminaareissa on ollut poikkeamista Jumalan säätämästä järjestyksestä, jossa naisella on määrätty paikkansa, asemansa ja tehtävänsä. Kun poika- ja miesoppilaiden normeista ja seminaarien säännöistä poikkeamisia on käsitelty opettajakokouksissa rikoksina, on tyttö- ja naisoppilaiden rikkeitä pyritty näkemään sairauden kaltaisina moraalia ja ymmärrystä heikentävinä tiloina. Ennen kaikkea ne ovat olleet rikkomuksia oikeanlaista naiseutta eli ”tosinaiseuden” mallia vastaan. Naisopettajuuden malli kansan äitinä ja mallikansalaisena sekä nöyrän, alistuvan, vaatimattoman ja säyseän ”tosinaisen” mallit olivat lähes yhdenmukaiset ja ne ovat luoneet ja ylläpitäneet tyttö- ja naisoppilaiden toiseutta. Diskurssit, joilla tätä toiseutta ylläpidettiin, elivät opettajaseminaarien pöytäkirjateksteissä liki sadan vuoden ajan vain painotuserojen muuttuessa hieman. Toivon työni herättävän pohdintaa siitä, mitä saattaisivat olla oman aikamme vastaavanlaiset itsestäänselvyydet, jotka otamme annettuina ja jotka kyseenalaistamattomina totuuksina rajoittavat niin kasvatettavien kuin kasvattajienkin omaksi itsekseen tulemista.

Native women, theory and research : contexts and contestations

In this thesis I outline a critical approach to interpreting the considerable academic literature on Aboriginal women in North America. I locate the scholarship concerning Native women within an understanding of three developments related to a philosophy of science: (I) paradigmatic shifts concerning the philosophy of science, (2) materialist-idealist debates and (3) transitions in feminist theory characterized by what is tenned the shift from second to third wave feminism. My exploration of emergent themes suggests that the elements indicated above provide overlapping frameworks within which most scholarship about Indigenous women is positioned. I illustrate my finding that employing critical discourse analysis and postcolonial feminism as both method and theory provides a useful approach in attending to intersecting experiences of 'race, class, and gender.' I view these intersecting experiences as central to the socio-political positioning of Indigenous women within contemporary feminist theorizing. I conclude my thesis by reflecting on the conceptual struggles I experienced in fonnulating and organizing the thesis and the significance of my underlying epistemological position and value-orientation as both a feminist and Native woman.

"Canada's toughest neighbourhood" : surveillance, myth and orientalism in Jane-Finch

This study examines coverage of lane-Finch in popular Canadian newspapers in 2007. It explores the often-negative representations of the community through conceptual frameworks based on the work of Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes and Edward Said. The question it attempts to answer is: What knowledge and power relationships are embedded within depictions of lane-Finch in popular Canadian newspapers in 2007? The methodology is a version of critical discourse analysis based on Foucault's The Archaeology of Knowledge. It finds that predominantly-negative connotations of the neighbourhood are reinforced through the perpetuation of dominant discourses, the use of "expert" knowledge sources, and the discounting of subjugated knowledges or livedexperiences of residents. The study concludes by suggesting where further research within the realm of popular culture and community identity can be directed.

Fitness to stand trial : how discourses of rationality, reasonableness and culpability inform the law and psychiatry to create standards of normal

The objective of this thesis is to demonstrate the importance of the concepts of rationality, reasonableness, culpability and autonomy that inform and support our conception of both the person and the punishable subject. A critical discourse analysis tracing these concepts through both the law and psychological tools used to evaluate the fitness of a person reveals that these concepts and their implied values are inconsistently applied to the mentally disordered who come into conflict with the law. I argue that the result of this inconsistency compromises a person's autonomy which is a contradiction to this concept as a foundational principle of the law. Ultimately, this thesis does not provide a solution to be employed in policy making, but its analysis leaves open possibilities for further exploration into the ways legal and social justice can be reconciled.

Impact of social constructs on administrator understanding of social justice

Educational administrators are expected to relate social justice considerations to their actions and to the theoretical foundations of their practice. At the same time, social constructs-including those related to administrative practice, social justice, and societal norms-are important in helping administrators understand, frame, and describe administrative issues. Furthermore, as part of socially constructed language, these constructs represent discursive practices and accepted ways of knowing, valuing, and experiencing the world. Drawing on the multidimensional methods of critical discourse analysis as articulated in the writings of Michel Foucault, Norman Fairclough, and Allan Luke, and using deconstruction as a strategic device for reading and interpreting texts, this exploratory qualitative study examined how administrator knowledge, values, and experiences impact their understanding of social justice within the context of delivering social justice for students who experience bullying. Study findings reveal that school administrators interpreted social justice as equitable distribution, action, and results; fairness; and equity. Constructs embedded in these interpretations assumed common things such as universal acceptance of norms of social relations and conveyed administrator intent to secure the kind of social relations that enabled individuals to enjoy greater equality within existing social arrangements.

“Illegal Aliens” and the Inconspicuous Geographies of US Immigration and Border Policing within 100 Miles of the US-Canada Border

Legal provisions in the US have extended the idea of the border to the inside of US territory. Border Patrol Agents confront people in different spaces to inquire about their status. I examine border policing along the northern border of the United States through textual and discourse analysis. This thesis asks: How do border agents exercise power and control the movement of people within 100 miles of the border? In whose interest is the border, the “nation,” secured? The spaces in which these mobile borders are practiced become the sites where “citizens” and “aliens” are produced, reproduced and contested. These border policing practices create the illusion of a “nation” that is secured for “our” interests. However, the interests of these vulnerable groups are not reflected in the immigration policy and along the “border. Therefore the very existence of immigrants and their basic right to be in the US is undermined.

"I'm Your Biggest Fan, I'll Follow You ... " Lady Gaga, Little Monsters and the Religious Dimension of Fandom in Pop Music

This thesis examines the religious dimension of fandom in popular music, taking as an object of reflection Lady Gaga and her fans. I combine fan studies with theories of immanence as well as Deleuze and Guattari's notion of the process of becoming, and provide a theoretical reading of the relationship between Lady Gaga and her most fervent fans, the 'little monsters.' Both fandom and religion promise a stable sense of identity and authentic community to devotees. Performing deconstructive discourse analysis on three of Lady Gaga's music videos, I demonstrate how fandom, like organized religion, can simultaneously be an emancipatory practice and a practice that seeks to deny individual subjects their agency. This thesis provides a new theoretical framework for understanding fandom, and illustrates how the purported benefits of both fandom and religion can only be gained when the figureheads of each group are symbolically destroyed by the members themselves.

Animals without Borders: Farmed Animal Resistance in New York

While billions of farmed animals are immobilized within agribusiness, every year some of these animals manage to break free. This thesis examines the stories of those who flee slaughterhouses and the public response to these individuals. My objective is to understand how animals resist and the role that their stories play in disrupting the ways that humans, particularly as consumers, are distanced from the violence of animal enterprises. Included are six vignettes that allow for an in-depth case study of those who have escaped within New York State. Located in the interdisciplinary field of critical animal studies, my inquiry draws upon new animal geographies, transnational feminisms, and critical discourse analysis. This contribution provides discussion of farmed animal resistance in particular and compares experiences and representations of their resistance from both the “view from below,” which is learned through the animals’ caretakers, and a “view from above,” which is gleaned from their representations in corporate-driven mainstream media.

Canadianness is Wilderness? Violent Love Relationships with ‘Wild’ Bodies

This thesis reveals contradictions that Canadians experience with groups attached to western construction of wilderness namely Indigenous people and wildlife. My study analyzes how the discourse of Canadian wilderness identity is played out in Algonquin Provincial Park and Bruce Peninsula National Park in comparison to non-nature/urban spaces (Greater Toronto Area). My investigation employs a critical discourse analysis and participant observation. I undertake three main tasks: 1) I describe how violent love is a dominant discourse at the Parks, 2) I examine evidence of animals and Indigenous people being produced relationally in the Parks, and 3) I analyze how relationships are spatially organized. My research reveals that the Parks conceal practices of violence that are central to the intersections of speciesism and colonialism. I demonstrate how violent love operates across a continuum that is influenced by spatial belonging and distance. This research is a contribution to the production of non-speciesist knowledge.

Rethinking Fiscal Decentralization Policies in Developing Economies: A Case Study of Ghana

This thesis invites geographers to pay more attention to public policy research by addressing the need to rethink fiscal decentralization policies in Ghana. By applying “Simandan’s wise stance in human geography” and “Grix’s building blocks of social research design”, I developed a conceptual framework that unites two incommensurable ontological and epistemological research positions in geography—the positive and normative positions. I used the framework to investigate two key research questions. First, does fiscal decentralization actually work in Ghana? Through quantitative analysis of empirical revenue and expenditure data (1994-2011) of local governments in Ghana, this study reveals significant issues of inefficiency, inequity, and unaccountability. Local governments generate less revenue, and therefore depend largely on central government transfers for developing their jurisdictions. Worse yet, these transfers are highly unpredictable in terms of amount and timing. Even though a multivariate regression analysis revealed that these transfers are apolitical, the actual disbursement formula tends to focus on equality instead of equity. Additionally, the unclear expenditure assignments in each locality make accountability difficult. In view of these problems, I addressed the question: why is fiscal decentralization held out as a good thing in Ghana? By drawing lessons from Foucault’s and Escobar’s critical discourse analysis, I traced a genealogy of Ghana’s fiscal decentralization. I found that the policy is held out as a good thing in Ghana because of the triangular operation of multiplicities of power, knowledge, and truth regimes at the local, national and international scale. I concluded that although nation-states remains a necessary causal link in fiscal decentralization policy process in Ghana, direct and indirect international involvement have profound effect on these policies. Therefore, rethinking fiscal decentralization involves acknowledging the complex intermingling effects that global, national, and local territories produce.

Transforming Downtown St. Catharines into a Creative Cluster

The City of St. Catharines, located on the southern shore of Lake Ontario, is Niagara Region's only major urban node. Like many small/medium-sized cities in Canada and abroad, the city experienced a rapid decline of large-scale manufacturing in the 1990s. In a renewed attempt to recover from this economic depression, and spurred by Provincial policy, the City implemented the Downtown Creative Cluster Master Plan (DCCMP) in 2008. In this thesis I conduct a discourse analysis of the DCCMP. My analysis indicates that DCCMP is shaped by neoliberal economic development paradigms. As such it is designed to restructure the downtown into a creative cluster by attracting developers/investors and appealing to the interests, tastes, and desires of middle-class consumers and creatives. I illustrate that this competitive city approach to urban planning has a questionable track record, and has been shown to result in retail and residential gentrification and displacement.