Planktic foraminifera from ODP Hole 117-723B

Upwelling occurs during the summer off the coast of Oman when the Asian monsoon produces strong southwest winds in the northern Arabian Sea. Ekman transport driven by the southwest monsoon winds upwells cool nutrient-rich waters along the coast which contrast with the warmer, less productive waters offshore. The spatial pattern of foraminifers in the sediments corresponds with the coastal environmental gradient. The upwelling species Globigerina bulloides dominates the sediment assemblage on the continental margin, while Globigerinita glutinata is more abundant offshore, creating a coastal gradient in fauna. We reconstructed the upwelling faunal gradient using high resolution oxygen isotope stratigraphy to correlate between Hole 723B on the Oman Margin, and a core from the Owen Ridge (RC2761), adjacent Site 722. A gradient similar in magnitude to the present, implying upwelling conditions similar to today existed during each interglacial time during the late Pleistocene interval from 0 to 300 k.y. The gradient was reduced or absent during glacial times implying diminshed southwest winds along the coast of Oman, not strong enough to produce an environmental gradient between the coast and offshore sites.

(Table 1) Effects of desiccation on photochemical processes and nitrogenase activity in Nostoc commune s.l. colonies

The effects of desiccation on photochemical processes and nitrogenase activity were evaluated in Nostoc commune s.l. colonies in situ from a wet thufur meadow at Petuniabukta, Billefjorden, Central Svalbard, during the 2009 arctic summer. The colonies were collected in the fully hydrated state, and were subjected to slow desiccation at ambient temperatures (5 - 8°C) and low light (30 - 80 µmol/m**2/s). For each colony the weight, area, photochemical performance, and nitrogenase activity were determined at the beginning, as well as on every day during the first four days of the experiment; thereafter, on every second day until desiccation was complete. The photochemical performance was evaluated from variable chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (FV/FM, Phi(PSII) , qP, and NPQ), and the nitrogenase activity was estimated by an acetylene-ethylene reduction assay. A significant decrease in the photochemically active area was recorded from the third day, when the colony had lost approximately 40% of its original weight indicating some changes in the extracellular matrix, and stopped on the 14th to 18th day. No effects of the desiccation on the main photochemical parameters (FV/FM, Phi(PSII), qP) were observed up to the sixth to eighth days of desiccation. Slightly lower values of FV/FM and Phi(PSII) recorded in fully-hydrated colonies could be caused by impaired diffusion of CO2 into cells. The steep reduction of photochemical activity occurred between the eighth and tenth day of the experiment, when the colony had lost approximately 80% of its fully-hydrated weight. The nitrogenase activity was highest on the first day, probably due to improved diffusion of N2 into cells, then declined, but was detectable until the sixth day of the experiment. Since Nostoc commune s.l. colonies were capable of photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation to the level of ca. 60% of its fully-hydrated weight, even partly-hydrated colonies contribute substantially to carbon and nitrogen cycling in the High Arctic wet meadow tundra ecosystem.

Calcareous nannofossils and planktonic foraminifera of ODP Hole 132-810C

The 136 m of calcareous oozes recovered in Hole 810C span the interval from upper Maastrichtian to middle Pleistocene. Three major hiatuses interrupt the sequence, with the topmost part of the Maastrichtian through the entire lower Paleocene, most of the lower Eocene, and the entire middle Eocene through most of the middle Miocene missing. Severe reworking and displacement affected the lower part of the succession from the Maastrichtian through the middle Miocene. Reworking and displacement gradually decreased in the upper portion. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy enabled us to calibrate precisely the nearly complete magnetic reversal sequence of the Pliocene to the late Pleistocene. Two minor hiatuses detected by calcareous nannofossils across the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary and in the upper lower Pleistocene, respectively, resulted in shortening of the Olduvai and Jaramillo Events within the Matuyama Chron of the magnetic reversal sequence.

Occurrence of some well known benthonic foraminiferal species in samples from DSDP Sites 6-49 and 6-50

The basal beds on the Shatsky Rise cored during Leg 6 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project are the oldest sediments recovered to date in the Pacific Ocean. Based on benthonic Foraminifera, the sediments correlate with the lower Barremian to upper Hauterivian (Lower Cretaceous) rather than the Upper Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous as previously reported. Thus the oldest sediments presently known from the Pacific Ocean are considerably younger than those in the western North Atlantic Ocean (Oxfordian; Upper Jurassic).

Marine diatoms in deep sea sediments

Long-term evolution is thought to take opportunities that arise as a consequence of mass extinction (as argued, for example, by Gould, 2002) and the following biotic recovery, but there is absolutely no evidence for this being the case. However, our study shows that eutrophication by oceanic mixing also played a part in the enhancement of several evolutionary events amongst marine organisms, and these results could indicate that the rates of oceanic biodiversification may be slowed if upwelling becomes weakened by future global warming. This paper defines three distinct evolutionary events of resting spores of the marine diatom genus Chaetoceros, to reconstruct past upwelling through the analysis of several DSDP, ODP and land-based successions from the North, South and equatorial Pacific as well as the Atlantic Ocean during the past 40 million years. The Atlantic Chaetoceros Explosion (ACE) event occurred across the E/O boundary in the North Atlantic, and is characterized by resting spore diversification that occurred as a consequence of the onset of upwelling following changes in thermohaline circulation through global cooling in the early Oligocene. Pacific Chaetoceros Explosion events-1 and -2 (PACE-1 and PACE-2) are characterized by relatively higher occurrences of iron input following the Himalayan uplift and aridification at 8.5 Ma and ca. 2.5 Ma in the North Pacific region. These events not only enhanced the diversification and increased abundance of primary producers, including that of Chaetoceros, other diatoms and seaweeds, but also stimulated the evolution of zooplankton and larger predators, such as copepods and marine mammals, which ate these phytoplankton and plants. Current thinking suggests new evolutionary niches open up after a mass extinction, but our study finds that eutrophication can also stimulate evolutionary diversification. Moreover, in the opposite fashion, our results show that as thermohaline circulation abates, global warming progresses and the ocean surface becomes warmer, many marine organisms will be affected by the environmental degradation.

Benthic foraminifers of the Barrow Group, Northwest Shelf, Australia

Micropaleontological analysis of the Barrow Group of Sites 762 and 763 has been undertaken with a view to determining the stratigraphic age and depositional environment of the unit. The stratigraphic age of the unit is Berriasian-Valanginian at both sites, in line with palynological findings. The unit is interpreted as having been deposited in a marine deltaic environment. Paleobathymetry at Site 763 (proximal) and Site 762 (distal) is interpreted as having been of the order of 100 m and 200-500 m, respectively. Paleontological evidence for the presence of deep-water submarine fans at Site 763 is lacking. The paleobathymetric significance of the observed variations in the benthic foraminiferal populations at Site 763 remains unclear.

Planktonic foraminifera in the trans-tropical Pacific Ocean

Cores from four Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) sites were examined for planktonic foraminifers. One sample per core (from core-catchers in Holes 806B and 807B and from Section 4 in Holes 847B and 852B) was examined through the interval representing the last 5.8 m.y. Sites 806 (0°19.1'N; 159°21.7'E) and 847 (0o12.1'N; 95°19.2'W) are beneath the equatorial divergence zone. Sites 807 (3°36.4'N; 156°37.5'E) and 852 (5°19.6'N; 110°4.6'W) are located north of the equator in the convergence zone created by the interaction of the westward-flowing South Equatorial Current (SEC) and the eastward-flowing North Equatorial Countercurrent (NECC). Specimens were identified to species and then grouped according to depth habitat and trophic level. Species richness and diversity were also calculated. Tropical neogloboquadrinids have been more abundant in the eastern than in the western equatorial Pacific Ocean throughout the last 5.8 m.y. During the mid-Pliocene (3.8-3.2 Ma), their abundance increased at all sites, while during the Pleistocene (after ~ 1.6 Ma), they expanded in the east and declined in the west. This suggests an increase in surface-water productivity across the Pacific Ocean during the closing of the Central American seaway and an exacerbation of the productivity asymmetry between the eastern and western equatorial regions during the Pleistocene. This faunal evidence agrees with eolian grain-size data (Hovan, 1995) and diatom flux data (Iwai, this volume), which suggest increases in tradewind strength in the eastern equatorial Pacific that centered around 3.5 and 0.5 Ma. The present longitudinal zonation of thermocline dwelling species, a response to the piling of warm surface water in the western equatorial region of the Pacific, seems to have developed after 2.4 Ma, not directly after the closing of the Panama seaway (3.2 Ma). Apparently, after 2.4 Ma, the piling warm water in the west overwhelmed the upwelling of nutrients into the photic zone in that region, creating the Oceanographic asymmetry that exists in the modern tropical Pacific and is reflected in the microfossil record. In the upper Miocene and lower Pliocene sediments, the ratio of thermocline-dwelling species to mixed-layer dwellers is 60%:40%. During the mid-Pliocene, the western sites became 40% thermocline and 60% mixed-layer dwellers. Subsequent to -2.4 Ma, the asymmetry increased to 20%: 80% in the west and the reverse in the east. This documents the gradual thickening of the warm-water layer piled up in the western tropical Pacific over the last 5.8 m.y. and reveals two "steps" in the biotic trend that can be associated with specific events in the physical environment.

Component composition and benthic foraminifera in sediments of ODP Leg 112

Indicators of surface-water productivity and bottom-water oxygenation have been studied for the age interval from the latest Pleistocene to the Holocene at three holes (679D, 680B, and 68IB) located in the center and at the edges of an upwelling cell at approximately 11°S on the Peruvian continental margin. Upwelling activity was maximal at this latitude during d18O Stages 1 (lower part), 3, the upper part of 5, the lower part of 6, and 7, as documented by high diatom abundance. During these time intervals, the bottom water was poorly oxygenated, as documented by low diversity benthic foraminiferal assemblages that are dominated by B. seminuda s.l. Both surface- and bottom-water-circulation patterns appear to have changed rapidly over short time intervals. Due to changes in surface circulation, the intensity of upwelling decreased, thereby decreasing the concentration of nutrients, and reducing the supply of organic matter to the bottom. Radiolarians became more abundant in the surface waters, and the bottom-water environment was less depleted in oxygen, allowing for the establishment of more diverse benthic foraminiferal assemblages. Surface-water productivity was probably minimal during the early part of d18O Stages 5 and 9, as indicated by the increased abundance of planktonic foraminifers and pteropods and their subsequent preservation.

Uppermost Jurassic to lower Cretaceous benthic foraminifera from ODP Hole 123-765C

Benthic foraminifers were studied in 99 samples collected from the lower 200 m of Hole 765C. The studied section ranges from the Tithonian to Aptian, and benthic foraminifers can be subdivided into five assemblages on the basis of faunal diversity and stratigraphic ranges of distinctive species. Compared with deep-water assemblages from Atlantic DSDP sites and Poland, assemblages from the Argo Abyssal Plain display a higher diversity of agglutinated forms, which comprise the autochthonous assemblages. Assemblages at the base of Hole 765C are wholly composed of agglutinated forms, reflecting deposition beneath the carbonate compensation depth (CCD). Most calcareous benthic species are found in turbidite layers, and the presence of an upper Valanginian Praedorothia praehauteriviana Assemblage may indicate deposition at or just below the CCD. The P. praehauteriviana Assemblage from Hole 765C is the temporal equivalent of similar assemblages from DSDP Holes 534A, 416A, 370, 105, and 101 in the Atlantic Ocean and Hole 306 in the Pacific Ocean. Stratigraphic ranges of cosmopolitan agglutinated species at Site 765 generally overlap with their reported ranges in the Atlantic and in the bathyal flysch sequences of the Carpathians; however, several species from Hole 765C have not been previously reported from Uppermost Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous abyssal sediments.

Oxygen isotopic and species composition of planktonic foraminiferas in sediment cores from the North Atlantic

Paleotemperature curves were drawn from oxygen-isotope ratios in CaCO3 of planktonic foraminiferal tests and by the micropaleontological method using quantitative relationships of their species. Two series of curves yield similar results. These data confirm that isotope composition of oxygen reflects primarily temperature, and not isotope composition in ocean water. Temperature of the upper layer of ocean water increased from north to south both during the last two glaciations and in the interglacials. All three sediment cores collected from different latitudes show approximately the same amplitudes of fluctuation of mean annual temperature during times of their accumulation, as determined independently by different methods; these amplitudes are estimated as 5-7°C.