Synthese und Photochemie von Dendrimeren mit stilbenoiden Chromophoren

Dendrimere spielen als strukturtreue Nanopartikel eine herausragende Rolle. Ziel dieser Arbeit war, Dendrimere mit einer hohen Dichte an photoaktiven Chromophoren herzu-stellen und zu untersuchen. Dazu wurden die terminalen Aminogruppen von Poly(propylenimin)dendrimeren 1. und 2. Generation, Astramol DAB-Am-4R und DAB-Am-8R, mit Stilbenen und Styrylstilbenen als Chromophor verknüpft. Mittels Wittig-Horner- und Heck-Reaktion wurden (E)-Stilbene aufgebaut, die auf der einen Seite drei Propoxygruppen zur Verbesserung der Löslichkeit und auf der anderen Seite eine passende Funktionalität zur Verknüpfung mit dem dendritischen Core tragen. Als Verknüpfungsmethoden wurden die Verknüpfung als Amid (PSDA), Schiffsche Base (PSDS) und Harnstoff (PSDH) getestet. Die Schiffschen Basen wurden außerdem zur Erhöhung der Hydrolysestabilität zum sekundären Amin reduziert (PSDR und PQDR). Durch die Verknüpfung mit dem Core werden die stilbenoiden Chromophore sehr stark photoaktiviert. Das beruht auf einem Singulett-Energietransfer (Förster-Mechanismus) von Chromophor zu Chromophor. Dieser Prozeß konkurriert zu den Deaktivierungsprozessen, verlängert die mittlere S1-Lebensdauer und erhöht somit die Chancen der Photochemie. Der Styrylstilben-Chromophor hat darüber hinaus einen erheblichen Teil seiner UV-Absorbtion bereits im Tageslicht und photopolymerisiert daher bereits im Tageslicht. Vor allem bei den Dendrimeren 2. Generation stellte sich die Frage nach der vollständigen, d.h. achtfachen Umsetzung; das Core sollte als Knäuel vorliegen, die Arme zum Teil nach innen gefaltet und somit dem Reaktand nur bedingt zugänglich. Auch dort konnten unter optimierten Reaktionsbedingungen alle Aminogruppen umgesetzt werden. Die vollständige Umsetzung der Dendrimere wurde mittels NMR und massenspektroskopischen Methoden untersucht. Bei den Absorptionsspektren der Dendrimere 1. Generation ändert sich die Lage der Maxima je nach Art der Verknüpfung der Chromophore mit dem Core. Die Verlängerung des Chromophors um eine Styryleinheit bedingt eine beträchtliche Rotverschiebung. Die Lage der Emissionsmaxima differiert stärker als die Lage der Absorptionsmaxima. Den geringsten Stokes-Shift weist der Harnstoff auf, dann folgt das sekundäre Amin, dann die Schiffsche Base. Dies weist auf unterschiedlich relaxierte S1-Geometrien hin. Die Verbindungen PSDS1, PSDR1 und PSDH1 aus 3,4,5-Tripropoxystilbeneinheit und Astramol-Core 1. Generation DAB-Am-4 wurden in einer Konzentration von 10-5 mol/L belichtet. Der vollständige Photoabbau durch Belichtung in Chloroform mit einer Xenon-Lampe erfolgte ohne jeglichen Filter innerhalb von zehn Minuten (PSDH1), 20 Minuten (PSDR1) und einer Stunde (PSDS1). Allen drei Verbindungen gemeinsam ist das Entstehen eines intermediären neuen Maximums geringer Intensität, das um etwa 100 nm bathochrom verschoben ist. Das Harnstoffsystem weist außerdem ein weiteres intermediäres Maximum bei 614 nm auf. Diese Maxima können (laut früherer Untersuchungen) durch Oxidation entstandenen chinoiden Strukturen zugeordnet werden, deren Lebensdauer (im Sekundenbereich) zu kurz für eine NMR-Charakterisierung ist. PSDR1 wurde außerdem bei höheren Konzentrationen (10-4 und 10-3 mol/L) mit einer Quecksilberlampe mit Pyrex-Filter (lambda > 300 nm) belichtet. Dabei wird, wie erwartet, eine Verbreiterung der NMR-Signale beobachtet. Es bildet sich zunächst cis-Stilben. Außerdem läßt sich bei 4.3 ppm ein Signal beobachten, das von inter- oder intramolekular gebildeten Methinprotonen herrührt. Auch wenn laut MOPAC- und Kraftfeldrechnung die Doppelbindungen ungünstig für eine [pi2s + pi2s]-Cyclodimerisierung zueinander stehen, kann im photochemisch angeregten Zustand eine Geometrie vorherrschen, die die intramolekulare Kopf-Kopf-Cyclobutanbildung ermöglicht. Die massenspektrometrischen Untersuchungen der Belichtungsprodukte (FD, ESI, MALDI-TOF) zeigen als höchste Masse lediglich das Monomer. Allerdings kann dadurch nicht auf eine rein intramolekulare Reaktion geschlossen werden. Die fortschreitende statistische CC-Verknüpfung kann schnell zu vernetzten Nanopartikeln führen, die im Massenspektrometer nicht fliegen. Die NMR-Spektren der mit zunehmender Vernetzung immer schlechter löslich werdenden Teilchen belegen die Oligomerisierung.

In-vivo-Tumorbiologie mittels 68 Ga-PET: Beurteilung der p-Glykoprotein-Aktivität in Weichgewebe-Tumoren sowie Diagnose und Therapie von Knochenmetastasen

Krebs ist eine der häufigsten Krankheiten und stellt eine der wichtigsten medizinischen Herausforderungen des 21. Jahrhunderts dar. Eine frühzeitige Diagnose ist dabei essentiell für eine individuell angepasste Therapie zur Verbesserung der Lebensqualität und -erwartung der Patienten. Hierbei kommen der 68Ge/68Ga-Generator und das daraus resultierende PET-Nuklid 68Ga immer stärker in den Fokus von Wissenschaft und Medizin. rnrnFür eine erfolgreiche Therapie stellt die Chemoresistenz (Multi-Drug-Resistance) zahlreicher Tumore eine schwerwiegende Komplikation dar. Für das Therapieversagen ist die Aktivierung des Transportproteins p-Glykoprotein (pGP) maßgeblich mit verantwortlich. Mit Hilfe der Schiff’schen Base [68Ga]MFL6.MZ konnte die Aktivitätsänderung von pGP unter verschiedener Beeinflussung erstmals in vivo beobachtet werden. So zeigte sich, dass sich unter azidotischen Bedingungen in Tumoren die Aktivität des pGP erhöht und somit vermehrt auch Zytostatika, die pGP-Substrate sind, aus den Tumoren transportiert werden. Durch Aufklärung der Abhängigkeit der pGP-Aktivität von dessen Signalkaskade konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch eine Blockade der MAP-Kinase p38 eine Erniedrigung der pGP-Aktivität zu verzeichnen ist. Die ebenfalls in der Signalkaskade eingebundene MAP-Kinase ERK1/2 hingegen spielt hier nur eine untergeordnete Rolle.rnrnNeben dem Versagen der Chemotherapie stellt auch die Metastasierung eines Malignoms massive Einschnitte in die Lebensqualität von Erkrankten dar. Befallen die Metastasen das Skelett eines Menschen, wird dies zumeist erst spät registriert. 68Ga-markierte Bisphosphonate bieten nun die Möglichkeit, Patienten quantitativ auf Knochenmetastasen hin untersuchen zu können. So konnten zu Beginn einfache Phosphonate wie EDTMP und DOTP nicht die nötige in vivo Stabilität bzw. hohe radiochemische Ausbeuten liefern und sind damit für die Anwendung am Menschen uninteressant. Jedoch die DOTA-basierten Bisphosphonate allen voran der Ligand BPAMD zeigen ein großes Potential. In vivo-Versuche an Ratten mit Knochenmetastasen zeigten, dass sich [68Ga]BPAMD an den Metastasen anreichert und einen sehr guten Kontrast zum gesunden Knochen darstellt. Der Tracer konnte erstmals am Menschen angewendet werden und zeigte in ausgewählten Regionen eine höhere Anreicherung als eine zuvor durchgeführte PET-Aufnahme mit [18F]Fluorid. Der Ligand BPAMD bietet außerdem den Vorteil, neben 68Ga auch andere dreiwertige Radionuklide wie das therapeutische 177Lu komplexieren zu können. Durch Studien zur Komplexbildung und Stabilität konnte auch [177Lu]BPAMD in der klinischen Anwendung erprobt werden und zeigte eine Anreicherung an den Knochenmetastasen. So ist es nun möglich, Knochenmetastasen mittels 68Ga-PET zu diagnostizieren, eine entsprechende Dosisberechnung anzustellen und anschließend mit dem gleichen Liganden eine Therapie mit [177Lu]BPAMD durchzuführen.

Targeting p-Conjugated Multiple Donor-Acceptor Motifs Exemplified by Tetrathiafulvalene-Linked Quinoxalines and Tetrabenz bc,ef,hi,uv ovalenes: Synthesis, Spectroscopic, Electrochemical, and Theoretical Characterization

An efficient synthetic approach to a symmetrically functionalized tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) derivative with two diamine moieties, 2-[5,6-diamino-4,7-bis(4-pentylphenoxy)-1,3-benzodithiol-2-ylidene]-4,7- bis(4-pentylphenoxy)-1,3-benzodithiole-5,6-diamine (2), is reported. The subsequent Schiff-base reactions of 2 afford large p-conjugated multiple donoracceptor (DA) arrays, for example, the triad 2-[4,9-bis(4-pentylphenoxy)-1,3-dithiolo[4,5-g]quinoxalin-2-ylidene]-4,9 -bis(4-pentylphenoxy)-1,3-dithiolo[4,5-g]quinoxaline (8) and the corresponding tetrabenz[bc,ef,hi,uv]ovalene-fused pentad 1, in good yields and high purity. The novel redox-active nanographene 1 is so far the largest known TTF-functionalized polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with a well-resolved 1H NMR spectrum. The electrochemically highly amphoteric pentad 1 and triad 8 exhibit various electronically excited charge-transfer states in different oxidation states, thus leading to intense optical intramolecular charge-transfer (ICT) absorbances over a wide spectral range. The chemical and electrochemical oxidations of 1 result in an unprecedented TTF+ radical cation dimerization, thereby leading to the formation of [1+]2 at room temperature in solution due to the stabilizing effect, which arises from strong pp interactions. Moreover, ICT fluorescence is observed with large solvent-dependent Stokes shifts and quantum efficiencies of 0.05 for 1 and 0.035 for 8 in dichloromethane.

Annulation of Tetrathiafulvalene to the Bay Region of Perylenediimide: Fast Electron-Transfer Processes in Polar and Nonpolar Solvents

A tetrathiafulvalene donor has been annulated to the bay region of perylenediimide through a 1H-benzo-[d]pyrrolo[1,2-a]imidazol-1-one spacer affording an extended pi-conjugated molecular dyad (TTF-PDI). To gain insight into its ground- and excited-state electronic properties, the reference compound Ph-PDI has been prepared via a direct Schiff-base condensation of N,N'-bis(1-octylnonyl) benzoperylene-1',2':3,4:9,10-hexacarboxylic-1',2'-anhydride-3,4:9,10-bis (imide) with benzene-1,2-diamine. Both the experimental and the computational (DFT) results indicate that TTF-PDI exhibits significant intramolecular electronic interactions giving rise to an efficient photoinduced charge-separation process. Free-energy calculations verify that the process from TTF to the singlet-excited state of PDI is exothermic in both polar and nonpolar solvents. Fast adiabatic electron-transfer processes of a compactly fused, pi-conjugated TTF-PDI dyad in benzonitrile, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, anisole and toluene were observed by femtosecond transient absorption spectral measurements. The lifetimes of radical-ion pairs slightly increase with decreasing the solvent polarities, suggesting that the charge-recombination occurs in the Marcus inverted region. By utilizing the nanosecond transient absorption technique, the intermolecular electron-transfer process in a mixture of has been observed via the triplet excited PDI for the first time.

Attractant and repellent signaling conformers of sensory rhodopsin-transducer complexes.

Attractant and repellent signaling conformers of the dual-signaling phototaxis receptor sensory rhodopsin I and its transducer subunit (SRI-HtrI) have recently been distinguished experimentally by the opposite connection of their retinylidene protonated Schiff bases to the outwardly located periplasmic side and inwardly located cytoplasmic side. Here we show that the pK(a) of the outwardly located Asp76 counterion in the outwardly connected conformer is lowered by approximately 1.5 units from that of the inwardly connected conformer. The pK(a) difference enables quantitative determination of the relative amounts of the two conformers in wild-type cells and behavioral mutants prior to photoexcitation, comparison of their absorption spectra, and determination of their relative signaling efficiency. We have shown that the one-photon excitation of the SRI-HtrI attractant conformer causes a Schiff base connectivity switch from inwardly connected to outwardly connected states in the attractant signaling photoreaction. Conversely, a second near-UV photon drives the complex back to the inwardly connected conformer in the repellent signaling photoreaction. The results suggest a model of the color-discriminating dual-signaling mechanism in which phototaxis responses (his-kinase modulation) result from the photointerconversion of the two oppositely connected SRI-HtrI conformers by one-photon and two-photon activation. Furthermore, we find that the related repellent phototaxis SRII-HtrII receptor complex has an outwardly connected retinylidene Schiff base like the repellent signaling forms of the SRI-HtrI complex, indicating the general applicability of macro conformational changes, which can be detected by the connectivity switch, to phototaxis signaling by sensory rhodopsin-transducer complexes.

Phototaxis signaling by the membrane complex of archaeal sensory rhodopsins and their transducers

Sensory rhodopsins I and II (SRI and SRII) are visual pigment-like phototaxis receptors in the archaeon Halobacterium salinarum. The receptor proteins each consist of a single polypeptide that folds into 7 $\alpha$-helical membrane-spanning segments forming an internal pocket where the chromophore retinal is bound. They transmit signals to their tightly bound transducer proteins, HtrI and HtrII, respectively, which in turn control a phosphotransfer pathway modulating the flagellar motors. SRI-HtrI mediates attractant responses to orange-light and repellent responses to UV light, while SRII-HtrII mediates repellent response to blue light. Experiments were designed to analyze the molecular processes in the SR-Htr complexes responsible for receptor activation, which previously had been shown by our laboratory to involve proton transfer reactions of the retinylidene Schiff base in the photoactive site, transfer of signals from receptor to transducer, and signaling specificity by the receptor-transducer complex.^ Site-directed mutagenesis and laser-flash kinetic spectroscopy revealed that His-166 in SRI (i) plays a role in the proton transfers both to and from the Schiffbase, either as a structurally critical residue or possibly as a direct participant, (ii) is involved in the modulation of SIU photoreaction kinetics by HtrI, and (iii) modulates the pKa of Asp-76, an important residue in the photoactive site, through a long-distance electrostatic interaction. Computerized cell tracking and motion analysis demonstrated that (iv) His-166 is crucial in phototaxis signaling: a spectrum of substitutions either eliminate signaling or greatly perturb the activation process that produces attractant and repellent signaling states of the receptor.^ The signaling states of SRI are communicated to HtrI, whose oligomeric structure and conformational changes were investigated by engineered sulfhydryl probes. It was found that signaling by the SRI-HtrI complex involves reversible conformational changes within a preexisting HtrI dimer, which is likely accomplished through a slight winding or unwinding of the two HtrT monomers via their loose coiled coil association. To elucidate which domains of the Htr dimers confer specificity for interaction with SRI or SRII, chimeras of HtrI and HtrII were constructed. The only determinant needed for functional and specific interaction with SRI or SRII was found to be the four transmembrane segments of the HtrI or HtrII dimers, respectively. The entire cytoplasmic parts of HtrI and HtrII, which include the functionally important signaling and adaptation domains, were interchangeable.^ These observations support a model in which SRI and SRII undergo conformational changes coupled to light-induced proton transfers in their photoactive sites, and that lateral helix-helix interactions with their cognate transducers' 4-helix bundle in the membrane relay these conformational changes into different states of the Htr proteins which regulate the down-stream phosphotransfer pathway. ^

Signal relay between two integral membrane proteins: The sensory rhodopsin I/HtrI transducer molecular complex

The molecular complex of sensory rhodopsin I (SRI) and its transducer HtrI mediate color-sensitive phototaxis in the archaeon Halobacterium salinarum. Orange light causes an attractant response by a one-photon reaction and white light causes a repellent response by a two-photon reaction. Three aspects of this molecular complex were explored: (i) We determined the stoichiometry of SRI and HtrI to be 2:2 by gene fusion analysis. A SRI-HtrI fusion protein was expressed in H. salinarum and shown to mediate 1-photon and 2-photon phototaxis responses comparable to wild-type complex. Disulfide crosslinking demonstrated that the fusion protein is a homodimer in the membrane. Measurement of photochemical reaction kinetics and pH titration of absorption spectra established that both SRI domains are complexed to HtrI in the fusion protein, and therefore the stoichiometry is 2:2. (ii) Cytoplasmic channel closure of SRI by HtrI, an important aspect of their interaction, was investigated by incremental HtrI truncation. We found that binding of the membrane-embedded portion of HtrI is insufficient for channel closure, whereas cytoplasmic extension of the second HtrI transmembrane helix by 13 residues blocks proton conduction through the channel as well as full-length HtrI. The closure activity is localized to 5 specific residues, each of which incrementally contributes to reduction of proton conductivity. Moreover, these same residues in the dark incrementally and proportionally increase the pKa of the Asp76 counterion to the protonated Schiff base chromophore. We conclude that this critical region of HtrI alters the dark conformation of SRI as well as light-induced channel opening. (iii) We developed a procedure for reconstituting HtrI-free SRI and the SRI/HtrI complex into liposomes, which exhibit photocycles with opened and closed cytoplasmic channels, respectively, as in the membrane. This opens the way for study of the light-induced conformational change and the interaction in vitro by fluorescence and spin-labeling. Single-cysteine mutations were introduced into helix F of SRI, labeled with a nitroxide spin probe and a fluorescence probe, reconstituted into proteoliposomes, and light-induced conformational changes detected in the complex. The probe signals can now be used as the readout of signaling to analyze mutants and the kinetics of signal relay. ^

Characterization of the NOP -1 opsin photoreceptor in the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa

Light absorption is an important process for energy production and sensory perception in many organisms. In the filamentous fungus, Neurospora crassa, blue-light is an important regulator of both asexual and sexual development, but the identity of the blue-light receptor is unknown. The work presented in this dissertation initiated the characterization of the putative N. crassa opsin photoreceptor, NOP-1. Opsins were thought to exist only in the archaea and mammals until the discovery of nop-1. All opsins have the same conserved structure of seven transmembrane helical domains with a lysine residue in the seventh helix specific for forming a Schiff-base linkage with retinal. The predicted NOP-1 protein sequence is equally similar to archaeal rhodopsins and a newly identified fungal opsin-related protein group (ORPs). ORPs maintain the seven transmembrane helical structure of opsins, but lack the conserved lysine residue for binding retinal. An ORP gene, orp-1 was identified in N. crassa and this work includes the cloning and sequence analysis of this gene. Characterization of NOP-1 function in N. crassa development began with the construction of a Δnop-1 deletion mutant. Extensive phenotypic analysis of Δnop-1 mutants revealed only subtle defects during development primarily under environmental conditions that induce a stress response. NOP-1 was overexpressed in the heterologous system Pichia pastoris, and it was demonstrated that NOP-1 protein bound all-trans retinal to form a green-light absorbing pigment (λmax = 534 nm) with a photochemical reaction cycle similar to archaeal sensory rhodopsins. nop-1 gene expression was monitored during N. crassa development. nop-1 transcript is highly expressed during asexual sporulation (conidiation) and transcript levels are abundant in the later stages of conidial development. nop-1 expression is not regulated by blue-light or elevated temperatures. Potential functions for NOP-1 were discovered through the transcriptional analysis of conidiation-associated genes in Δnop-1 mutants. NOP-1 exhibits antagonistic transcriptional regulation of conidiation-associated genes late in conidial development, by enhancing the carotenogenic gene, al-2 and repressing the conidiation-specific genes, con-10 and con-13. ^

Isolation of a myoglobin molten globule by selective cobalt(III)-induced unfolding

Reaction of the Schiff-base complex [Co(acetylacetonate-ethylenediimine)(NH3)2]+ with metmyoglobin at pH 6.5 yields a partially folded protein containing six Co(III) complexes. Although half of its α-helical secondary structure is retained, absorption and CD spectra indicate that the tertiary structure in both B-F and AGH domains is disrupted in the partially folded protein. In analogy to proton-induced unfolding, it is likely that the loss of tertiary structure is triggered by metal-ion binding to histidines. Cobalt(III)-induced unfolding of myoglobin is unique in its selectivity (other proteins are unaffected) and in allowing the isolation of the partially folded macromolecule (the protein does not refold or aggregate upon removal of free denaturant).

A cobalt complex that selectively disrupts the structure and function of zinc fingers

Zinc finger domains are structures that mediate sequence recognition for a large number of DNA-binding proteins. These domains consist of sequences of amino acids containing cysteine and histidine residues tetrahedrally coordinated to a zinc ion. In this report, we present a means to selectively inhibit a zinc finger transcription factor with cobalt(III) Schiff-base complexes. 1H NMR spectroscopy confirmed that the structure of a zinc finger peptide is disrupted by axial ligation of the cobalt(III) complex to the nitrogen of the imidazole ring of a histidine residue. Fluorescence studies reveal that the zinc ion is displaced from the model zinc finger peptide in the presence of the cobalt complex. In addition, gel-shift and filter-binding assays reveal that cobalt complexes inhibit binding of a complete zinc finger protein, human transcription factor Sp1, to its consensus sequence. Finally, a DNA-coupled conjugate of the cobalt complexes selectively inhibited Sp1 in the presence of several other transcription factors.

Deficient DNA-ligase activity in the metabolic disease tyrosinemia type I

Hereditary tyrosinemia type I (HT1) is an autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism caused by the deficiency of fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase, the last enzyme in the tyrosine catabolism pathway. This defect results in accumulation of succinylacetone (SA) that reacts with amino acids and proteins to form stable adducts via Schiff base formation, lysine being the most reactive amino acid. HT1 patients surviving beyond infancy are at considerable risk for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma, and a high level of chromosomal breakage is observed in HT1 cells, suggesting a defect in the processing of DNA. In this paper we show that the overall DNA-ligase activity is low in HT1 cells (about 20% of the normal value) and that Okazaki fragments are rejoined at a reduced rate compared with normal fibroblasts. No mutation was found by sequencing the ligase I cDNA from HT1 cells, and the level of expression of the ligase I mRNA was similar in normal and HT1 fibroblasts, suggesting the presence of a ligase inhibitor. SA was shown to inhibit in vitro the overall DNA-ligase activity present in normal cell extracts. The activity of purified T4 DNA-ligase, whose active site is also a lysine residue, was inhibited by SA in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that accumulation of SA reduces the overall ligase activity in HT1 cells and indicate that metabolism errors may play a role in regulating enzymatic activities involved in DNA replication and repair.

Chromophore structural changes in rhodopsin from nanoseconds to microseconds following pigment photolysis

Rhodopsin is a prototypical G protein-coupled receptor that is activated by photoisomerization of its 11-cis-retinal chromophore. Mutant forms of rhodopsin were prepared in which the carboxylic acid counterion was moved relative to the positively charged chromophore Schiff base. Nanosecond time-resolved laser photolysis measurements of wild-type recombinant rhodopsin and two mutant pigments then were used to determine reaction schemes and spectra of their early photolysis intermediates. These results, together with linear dichroism data, yielded detailed structural information concerning chromophore movements during the first microsecond after photolysis. These chromophore structural changes provide a basis for understanding the relative movement of rhodopsin’s transmembrane helices 3 and 6 required for activation of rhodopsin. Thus, early structural changes following isomerization of retinal are linked to the activation of this G protein-coupled receptor. Such rapid structural changes lie at the heart of the pharmacologically important signal transduction mechanisms in a large variety of receptors, which use extrinsic activators, but are impossible to study in receptors using diffusible agonist ligands.

Mechanisms of spectral tuning in the mouse green cone pigment

Diversification of cone pigment spectral sensitivities during evolution is a prerequisite for the development of color vision. Previous studies have identified two naturally occurring mechanisms that produce variation among vertebrate pigments by red-shifting visual pigment absorbance: addition of hydroxyl groups to the putative chromophore binding pocket and binding of chloride to a putative extracellular loop. In this paper we describe the use of two blue-shifting mechanisms during the evolution of rodent long-wave cone pigments. The mouse green pigment belongs to the long-wave subfamily of cone pigments, but its absorption maximum is 508 nm, similar to that of the rhodopsin subfamily of visual pigments, but blue-shifted 44 nm relative to the human red pigment, its closest homologue. We show that acquisition of a hydroxyl group near the retinylidene Schiff base and loss of the chloride binding site mentioned above fully account for the observed blue shift. These data indicate that the chloride binding site is not a universal attribute of long-wave cone pigments as generally supposed, and that, depending upon location, hydroxyl groups can alter the environment of the chromophore to produce either red or blue shifts.

Crystal structure of glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminomutase: An α2-dimeric vitamin B6-dependent enzyme with asymmetry in structure and active site reactivity

The three-dimensional structure of glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.8), an α2-dimeric enzyme from Synechococcus, has been determined by x-ray crystallography using heavy atom derivative phasing. The structure, refined at 2.4-Å resolution to an R-factor of 18.7% and good stereochemistry, explains many of the enzyme’s unusual specificity and functional properties. The overall fold is that of aspartate aminotransferase and related B6 enzymes, but it also has specific features. The structure of the complex with gabaculine, a substrate analogue, shows unexpectedly that the substrate binding site involves residues from the N-terminal domain of the molecule, notably Arg-32. Glu-406 is suitably positioned to repel α-carboxylic acids, thereby suggesting a basis for the enzyme’s reaction specificity. The subunits show asymmetry in cofactor binding and in the mobilities of the residues 153–181. In the unliganded enzyme, one subunit has the cofactor bound as an aldimine of pyridoxal phosphate with Lys-273 and, in this subunit, residues 153–181 are disordered. In the other subunit in which the cofactor is not covalently bound, residues 153–181 are well defined. Consistent with the crystallographically demonstrated asymmetry, a form of the enzyme in which both subunits have pyridoxal phosphate bound to Lys-273 through a Schiff base showed biphasic reduction by borohydride in solution. Analysis of absorption spectra during reduction provided evidence of communication between the subunits. The crystal structure of the reduced form of the enzyme shows that, despite identical cofactor binding in each monomer, the structural asymmetry at residues 153–181 remains.

A local electrostatic change is the cause of the large-scale protein conformation shift in bacteriorhodopsin

During light-driven proton transport bacteriorhodopsin shuttles between two protein conformations. A large-scale structural change similar to that in the photochemical cycle is produced in the D85N mutant upon raising the pH, even without illumination. We report here that (i) the pKa values for the change in crystallographic parameters and for deprotonation of the retinal Schiff base are the same, (ii) the retinal isomeric configuration is nearly unaffected by the protein conformation, and (iii) preventing rotation of the C13—C14 double bond by replacing the retinal with an all-trans locked analogue makes little difference to the Schiff base pKa. We conclude that the direct cause of the conformational shift is destabilization of the structure upon loss of interaction of the positively charged Schiff base with anionic residues that form its counter-ion.