Optical and biomechanical factors, associated with near work and myopia

Near work may play an important role in the development of myopia in the younger population. The prevalence of myopia has also been found to be higher in occupations that involve substantial near work tasks, for example in microscopists and textile workers. When nearwork is performed, it typically involves accommodation, convergence and downward gaze. A number of previous studies have examined the effects of accommodation and convergence on changes in the optics and biometrics of the eye in primary gaze. However, little is known about the influence of accommodation on the eye in downward gaze. This thesis is primarily concerned with investigating the changes in the eye during near work in downward gaze under natural viewing conditions. To measure wavefront aberrations in downward gaze under natural viewing conditions, we modified a commercial Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor by adding a relay lens system to allow on-axis ocular aberration measurements in primary gaze and downward gaze, with binocular fixation. Measurements with the modified wavefront sensor in primary and downward gaze were validated against a conventional aberrometer using both a model eye and in 9 human subjects. We then conducted an experiment to investigate changes in ocular aberrations associated with accommodation in downward gaze over 10 mins in groups of both myopes (n = 14) and emmetropes (n =12) using the modified Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor. During the distance accommodation task, small but significant changes in refractive power (myopic shift) and higher order aberrations were observed in downward gaze compared to primary gaze. Accommodation caused greater changes in higher order aberrations (in particular coma and spherical aberration) in downward gaze than primary gaze, and there was evidence that the changes in certain aberrations with accommodation over time were different in downward gaze compared to primary gaze. There were no obvious systematic differences in higher order aberrations between refractive error groups during accommodation or downward gaze for fixed pupils. However, myopes exhibited a significantly greater change in higher order aberrations (in particular spherical aberration) than emmetropes for natural pupils after 10 mins of a near task (5 D accommodation) in downward gaze. These findings indicated that ocular aberrations change from primary to downward gaze, particularly with accommodation. To understand the mechanism underlying these changes in greater detail, we then extended this work to examine the characteristics of the corneal optics, internal optics, anterior biometrics and axial length of the eye during a near task, in downward gaze, over 10 mins. Twenty young adult subjects (10 emmetropes and 10 myopes) participated in this study. To measure corneal topography and ocular biometrics in downward gaze, a rotating Scheimpflug camera and an optical biometer were inclined on a custom built, height and tilt adjustable table. We found that both corneal optics and internal optics change with downward gaze, resulting in a myopic shift (~0.10 D) in the spherical power of the eye. The changes in corneal optics appear to be due to eyelid pressure on the anterior surface of the cornea, whereas the changes in the internal optics (an increase in axial length and a decrease in anterior chamber depth) may be associated with movement of the crystalline lens, under the action of gravity, and the influence of altered biomechanical forces from the extraocular muscles on the globe with downward gaze. Changes in axial length with accommodation were significantly greater in downward gaze than primary gaze (p < 0.05), indicating an increased effect of the mechanical forces from the ciliary muscle and extraocular muscles. A subsequent study was conducted to investigate the changes in anterior biometrics, axial length and choroidal thickness in nine cardinal gaze directions under the actions of the extraocular muscles. Ocular biometry measurements were obtained from 30 young adults (10 emmetropes, 10 low myopes and 10 moderate myopes) through a rotating prism with 15° deviation, along the foveal axis, using a non-contact optical biometer in each of nine different cardinal directions of gaze, over 5 mins. There was a significant influence of gaze angle and time on axial length (both p < 0.001), with the greatest axial elongation (+18 ± 8 μm) occurring with infero-nasal gaze (p < 0.001) and a slight decrease in axial length in superior gaze (−12 ± 17 μm) compared with primary gaze (p < 0.001). There was a significant correlation between refractive error (spherical equivalent refraction) and the mean change in axial length in the infero-nasal gaze direction (Pearson's R2 = 0.71, p < 0.001). To further investigate the relative effect of gravity and extraocular muscle force on the axial length, we measured axial length in 15° and 25° downward gaze with the biometer inclined on a tilting table that allowed gaze shifts to occur with either full head turn but no eye turn (reflects the effect of gravity), or full eye turn with no head turn (reflects the effect of extraocular muscle forces). We observed a significant axial elongation in 15° and 25° downward gaze in the full eye turn condition. However, axial length did not change significantly in downward gaze over 5 mins (p > 0.05) in the full head turn condition. The elongation of the axial length in downward gaze appears to be due to the influence of the extraocular muscles, since the effect was not present when head turn was used instead of eye turn. The findings of these experiments collectively show the dynamic characteristics of the optics and biometrics of the eye in downward gaze during a near task, over time. These were small but significant differences between myopic and emmetropic eyes in both the optical and biomechanical changes associated with shifts of gaze direction. These differences between myopes and emmetropes could arise as a consequence of excessive eye growth associated with myopia. However the potentially additive effects of repeated or long lasting near work activities employing infero-nasal gaze could also act to promote elongation of the eye due to optical and/or biomechanical stimuli.

Assessing the short-term effects of heatwaves on mortality and morbidity in Brisbane, Australia : comparison of case-crossover and time series analyses

Background Heat-related impacts may have greater public health implications as climate change continues. It is important to appropriately characterize the relationship between heatwave and health outcomes. However, it is unclear whether a case-crossover design can be effectively used to assess the event- or episode-related health effects. This study examined the association between exposure to heatwaves and mortality and emergency hospital admissions (EHAs) from non-external causes in Brisbane, Australia, using both case-crossover and time series analyses approaches. Methods Poisson generalised additive model (GAM) and time-stratified case-crossover analyses were used to assess the short-term impact of heatwaves on mortality and EHAs. Heatwaves exhibited a significant impact on mortality and EHAs after adjusting for air pollution, day of the week, and season. Results For time-stratified case-crossover analysis, odds ratios of mortality and EHAs during heatwaves were 1.62 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.36–1.94) and 1.22 (95% CI: 1.14–1.30) at lag 1, respectively. Time series GAM models gave similar results. Relative risks of mortality and EHAs ranged from 1.72 (95% CI: 1.40–2.11) to 1.81 (95% CI: 1.56–2.10) and from 1.14 (95% CI: 1.06–1.23) to 1.28 (95% CI: 1.21–1.36) at lag 1, respectively. The risk estimates gradually attenuated after the lag of one day for both case-crossover and time series analyses. Conclusions The risk estimates from both case-crossover and time series models were consistent and comparable. This finding may have implications for future research on the assessment of event- or episode-related (e.g., heatwave) health effects.

High rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is coingested with caffeine

We determined the effect of coingestion of caffeine (Caff) with carbohydrate (CHO) on rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis during recovery from exhaustive exercise in seven trained subjects who completed two experimental trials in a randomized, double-blind crossover design. The evening before an experiment subjects performed intermittent exhaustive cycling and then consumed a low-CHO meal. The next morning subjects rode until volitional fatigue. On completion of this ride subjects consumed either CHO [4 g/kg body mass (BM)] or the same amount of CHO + Caff (8 mg/kg BM) during 4 h of passive recovery. Muscle biopsies and blood samples were taken at regular intervals throughout recovery. Muscle glycogen levels were similar at exhaustion [?75 mmol/kg dry wt (dw)] and increased by a similar amount (?80%) after 1 h of recovery (133 ± 37.8 vs. 149 ± 48 mmol/kg dw for CHO and Caff, respectively). After 4 h of recovery Caff resulted in higher glycogen accumulation (313 ± 69 vs. 234 ± 50 mmol/kg dw, P < 0.001). Accordingly, the overall rate of resynthesis for the 4-h recovery period was 66% higher in Caff compared with CHO (57.7 ± 18.5 vs. 38.0 ± 7.7 mmol·kg dw-1·h-1, P < 0.05). After 1 h of recovery plasma Caff levels had increased to 31 ± 11 ?M (P < 0.001) and at the end of the recovery reached 77 ± 11 ?M (P < 0.001) with Caff. Phosphorylation of CaMKThr286 was similar after exercise and after 1 h of recovery, but after 4 h CaMKThr286 phosphorylation was higher in Caff than CHO (P < 0.05). Phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)Thr172 and AktSer473 was similar for both treatments at all time points. We provide the first evidence that in trained subjects coingestion of large amounts of Caff (8 mg/kg BM) with CHO has an additive effect on rates of postexercise muscle glycogen accumulation compared with consumption of CHO alone.

The effects and interactions of GABAergic and dopaminergic agents in the prevention of form deprivation myopia by brief periods of normal vision

Intravitreal injections of GABA antagonists, dopamine agonists and brief periods of normal vision have been shown separately to inhibit form-deprivation myopia (FDM). Our study had three aims: (i) establish whether GABAergic agents modify the myopia protective effect of normal vision, (ii) investigate the receptor sub-type specificity of any observed effect, and (iii) consider an interaction with the dopamine (DA) system. Prior to the period of normal vision GABAergic agents were applied either (i) individually, (ii) in combination with other GABAergic agents (an agonist with an antagonist), or (iii) in combination with DA agonists and antagonists. Water injections were given to groups not receiving drug treatments so that all experimental eyes received intravitreal injections. As shown previously, constant form-deprivation resulted in high myopia and when diffusers were removed for 2 h per day the period of normal vision greatly reduced the FDM that developed. GABA agonists inhibited the protective effect of normal vision whereas antagonists had the opposite effect. GABAA/C agonists and D2 DA antagonists when used in combination were additive in suppressing the protective effect of normal vision. A D2 DA agonist restored some of the protective effect of normal vision that was inhibited by a GABA agonist (muscimol). The protective effect of normal vision against form-deprivation is modifiable by both the GABAergic and DAergic pathways.

Addressing accuracy and precision issues in iTRAQ quantitation

iTRAQ (isobaric tags for relative or absolute quantitation) is a mass spectrometry technology that allows quantitative comparison of protein abundance by measuring peak intensities of reporter ions released from iTRAQ-tagged peptides by fragmentation during MS/MS. However, current data analysis techniques for iTRAQ struggle to report reliable relative protein abundance estimates and suffer with problems of precision and accuracy. The precision of the data is affected by variance heterogeneity: low signal data have higher relative variability; however, low abundance peptides dominate data sets. Accuracy is compromised as ratios are compressed toward 1, leading to underestimation of the ratio. This study investigated both issues and proposed a methodology that combines the peptide measurements to give a robust protein estimate even when the data for the protein are sparse or at low intensity. Our data indicated that ratio compression arises from contamination during precursor ion selection, which occurs at a consistent proportion within an experiment and thus results in a linear relationship between expected and observed ratios. We proposed that a correction factor can be calculated from spiked proteins at known ratios. Then we demonstrated that variance heterogeneity is present in iTRAQ data sets irrespective of the analytical packages, LC-MS/MS instrumentation, and iTRAQ labeling kit (4-plex or 8-plex) used. We proposed using an additive-multiplicative error model for peak intensities in MS/MS quantitation and demonstrated that a variance-stabilizing normalization is able to address the error structure and stabilize the variance across the entire intensity range. The resulting uniform variance structure simplifies the downstream analysis. Heterogeneity of variance consistent with an additive-multiplicative model has been reported in other MS-based quantitation including fields outside of proteomics; consequently the variance-stabilizing normalization methodology has the potential to increase the capabilities of MS in quantitation across diverse areas of biology and chemistry.

Paint spray mass spectrometry for the detection of additives from polymers on conducting surfaces

Paint Spray is developed as a direct sampling ionisation method for mass spectrometric analysis of additives in polymer-based surface coatings. The technique simply involves applying an external high voltage (5 kV) to the wetted sample placed in front of the mass spectrometer inlet and represents a much simpler ionisation technique compared to those currently available. The capabilities of Paint Spray are demonstrated herein with the detection of four commercially available hindered amine light stabilisers; TINUVIN® 770, TINUVIN® 292, TINUVIN® 123 and TINUVIN® 152 directly from thermoset polyester-based coil coatings. Paint Spray requires no sample preparation or pre-treatment and combined with its simplicity - requiring no specialised equipment - makes it ideal for use by non-specialists. The application of Paint Spray for industrial use has significant potential as sample collection from a coil coating production line and Paint Spray ionisation could enable fast quality control screening at high sensitivity.

Ambient ionisation mass spectrometry for the characterisation of polymers and polymer additives : A review

The purpose of this review is to showcase the present capabilities of ambient sampling and ionisation technologies for the analysis of polymers and polymer additives by mass spectrometry (MS) while simultaneously highlighting their advantages and limitations in a critical fashion. To qualify as an ambient ionisation technique, the method must be able to probe the surface of solid or liquid samples while operating in an open environment, allowing a variety of sample sizes, shapes, and substrate materials to be analysed. The main sections of this review will be guided by the underlying principle governing the desorption/extraction step of the analysis; liquid extraction, laser ablation, or thermal desorption, and the major component investigated, either the polymer itself or exogenous compounds (additives and contaminants) present within or on the polymer substrate. The review will conclude by summarising some of the challenges these technologies still face and possible directions that would further enhance the utility of ambient ionisation mass spectrometry as a tool for polymer analysis. (C) 2013 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved.

Multi-party computation with conversion of secret sharing

Classical results in unconditionally secure multi-party computation (MPC) protocols with a passive adversary indicate that every n-variate function can be computed by n participants, such that no set of size t < n/2 participants learns any additional information other than what they could derive from their private inputs and the output of the protocol. We study unconditionally secure MPC protocols in the presence of a passive adversary in the trusted setup (‘semi-ideal’) model, in which the participants are supplied with some auxiliary information (which is random and independent from the participant inputs) ahead of the protocol execution (such information can be purchased as a “commodity” well before a run of the protocol). We present a new MPC protocol in the trusted setup model, which allows the adversary to corrupt an arbitrary number t < n of participants. Our protocol makes use of a novel subprotocol for converting an additive secret sharing over a field to a multiplicative secret sharing, and can be used to securely evaluate any n-variate polynomial G over a field F, with inputs restricted to non-zero elements of F. The communication complexity of our protocol is O(ℓ · n 2) field elements, where ℓ is the number of non-linear monomials in G. Previous protocols in the trusted setup model require communication proportional to the number of multiplications in an arithmetic circuit for G; thus, our protocol may offer savings over previous protocols for functions with a small number of monomials but a large number of multiplications.

The impact of heatwaves on emergency department visits in Brisbane, Australia : a time series study

Introduction The acute health effects of heatwaves in a subtropical climate and their impact on emergency departments (ED) are not well known. The purpose of this study is to examine overt heat-related presentations to EDs associated with heatwaves in Brisbane. Methods Data were obtained for the summer seasons (December to February) from 2000-2012. Heatwave events were defined as two or more successive days with daily maximum temperature >=34[degree sign]C (HWD1) or >=37[degree sign]C (HWD2). Poisson generalised additive model was used to assess the effect of heatwaves on heat-related visits (International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 10 codes T67 and X30; ICD 9 codes 992 and E900.0). Results Overall, 628 cases presented for heat-related illnesses. The presentations significantly increased on heatwave days based on HWD1 (relative risk (RR) = 4.9, 95% confidence interval (CI): 3.8, 6.3) and HWD2 (RR = 18.5, 95% CI: 12.0, 28.4). The RRs in different age groups ranged between 3-9.2 (HWD1) and 7.5-37.5 (HWD2). High acuity visits significantly increased based on HWD1 (RR = 4.7, 95% CI: 2.3, 9.6) and HWD2 (RR = 81.7, 95% CI: 21.5, 310.0). Average length of stay in ED significantly increased by >1 hour (HWD1) and >2 hours (HWD2). Conclusions Heatwaves significantly increase ED visits and workload even in a subtropical climate. The degree of impact is directly related to the extent of temperature increases and varies by socio-demographic characteristics of the patients. Heatwave action plans should be tailored according to the population needs and level of vulnerability. EDs should have plans to increase their surge capacity during heatwaves.

Source code watermarking based on function dependency oriented sequencing

In the current market, extensive software development is taking place and the software industry is thriving. Major software giants have stated source code theft as a major threat to revenues. By inserting an identity-establishing watermark in the source code, a company can prove it's ownership over the source code. In this paper, we propose a watermarking scheme for C/C++ source codes by exploiting the language restrictions. If a function calls another function, the latter needs to be defined in the code before the former, unless one uses function pre-declarations. We embed the watermark in the code by imposing an ordering on the mutually independent functions by introducing bogus dependency. Removal of dependency by the attacker to erase the watermark requires extensive manual intervention thereby making the attack infeasible. The scheme is also secure against subtractive and additive attacks. Using our watermarking scheme, an n-bit watermark can be embedded in a program having n independent functions. The scheme is implemented on several sample codes and performance changes are analyzed.

Incorporating adverse event relatedness into dose-finding clinical trial designs

Dose-finding designs estimate the dose level of a drug based on observed adverse events. Relatedness of the adverse event to the drug has been generally ignored in all proposed design methodologies. These designs assume that the adverse events observed during a trial are definitely related to the drug, which can lead to flawed dose-level estimation. We incorporate adverse event relatedness into the so-called continual reassessment method. Adverse events that have ‘doubtful’ or ‘possible’ relationships to the drug are modelled using a two-parameter logistic model with an additive probability mass. Adverse events ‘probably’ or ‘definitely’ related to the drug are modelled using a cumulative logistic model. To search for the maximum tolerated dose, we use the maximum estimated toxicity probability of these two adverse event relatedness categories. We conduct a simulation study that illustrates the characteristics of the design under various scenarios. This article demonstrates that adverse event relatedness is important for improved dose estimation. It opens up further research pathways into continual reassessment design methodologies.

Optimization approaches for the design of additively manufactured scaffolds

Scaffolds play a pivotal role in tissue engineering, promoting the synthesis of neo extra-cellular matrix (ECM), and providing temporary mechanical support for the cells during tissue regeneration. Advances introduced by additive manufacturing techniques have significantly improved the ability to regulate scaffold architecture, enhancing the control over scaffold shape and porosity. Thus, considerable research efforts have been devoted to the fabrication of 3D porous scaffolds with optimized micro-architectural features. This chapter gives an overview of the methods for the design of additively manufactured scaffolds and their applicability in tissue engineering (TE). Along with a survey of the state of the art, the Authors will also present a recently developed method, called Load-Adaptive Scaffold Architecturing (LASA), which returns scaffold architectures optimized for given applied mechanical loads systems, once the specific stress distribution is evaluated through Finite Element Analysis (FEA).

Elevated cyclic AMP suppresses ConA-induced MT1-MMP expression in MDA- MB-231 human breast cancer cells

We have previously reported that induction of MMP-2 activation by Concanavalin A (ConA) in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells involves both transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms, and that the continuous presence of ConA is required for MMP-2 activation (Yu et al. Cancer Res, 55, 3272-7, 1995). In an effort to identify signal transduction pathways which may either contribute to or modulate this mechanism, we found that three different cAMP-inducing agents, cholera toxin (CT), forskolin (FSK), and 3- isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) partially inhibited ConA-induced MT1-MMP expression and MMP-2 activation in MDA-MB-231 cells. Combinations of CT or FSK with IBMX exhibited additive effects on reduction of MT1-MMP mRNA expression and MMP-2 activation. Agents which increase cAMP levels appeared to target transcriptional aspects of ConA induction, reducing MT1-MMP mRNA and protein in parallel with the reduced MMP-2 activation. In the absence of ConA, down-regulation of constitutive production of MT1-MMP mRNA and protein was observed, indicating that cAMP acts independently of ConA. These observations may help to elucidate factors regulating MT1-MMP expression, which may be pivotal to the elaboration of invasive machinery on the cell surface.

Characterisation of the micro-architecture of direct writing melt electrospun tissue engineering scaffolds using diffusion tensor and computed tomography microimaging

This article describes the first steps toward comprehensive characterization of molecular transport within scaffolds for tissue engineering. The scaffolds were fabricated using a novel melt electrospinning technique capable of constructing 3D lattices of layered polymer fibers with well - defined internal microarchitectures. The general morphology and structure order was then determined using T 2 - weighted magnetic resonance imaging and X - ray microcomputed tomography. Diffusion tensor microimaging was used to measure the time - dependent diffusivity and diffusion anisotropy within the scaffolds. The measured diffusion tensors were anisotropic and consistent with the cross - hatched geometry of the scaffolds: diffusion was least restricted in the direction perpendicular to the fiber layers. The results demonstrate that the cross - hatched scaffold structure preferentially promotes molecular transport vertically through the layers ( z - axis), with more restricted diffusion in the directions of the fiber layers ( x – y plane). Diffusivity in the x – y plane was observed to be invariant to the fiber thickness. The characteristic pore size of the fiber scaffolds can be probed by sampling the diffusion tensor at multiple diffusion times. Prospective application of diffusion tensor imaging for the real - time monitoring of tissue maturation and nutrient transport pathways within tissue engineering scaffolds is discussed.

A Bayesian hurdle model for analysis of an insect resistance monitoring database

Motivated by the analysis of the Australian Grain Insect Resistance Database (AGIRD), we develop a Bayesian hurdle modelling approach to assess trends in strong resistance of stored grain insects to phosphine over time. The binary response variable from AGIRD indicating presence or absence of strong resistance is characterized by a majority of absence observations and the hurdle model is a two step approach that is useful when analyzing such a binary response dataset. The proposed hurdle model utilizes Bayesian classification trees to firstly identify covariates and covariate levels pertaining to possible presence or absence of strong resistance. Secondly, generalized additive models (GAMs) with spike and slab priors for variable selection are fitted to the subset of the dataset identified from the Bayesian classification tree indicating possibility of presence of strong resistance. From the GAM we assess trends, biosecurity issues and site specific variables influencing the presence of strong resistance using a variable selection approach. The proposed Bayesian hurdle model is compared to its frequentist counterpart, and also to a naive Bayesian approach which fits a GAM to the entire dataset. The Bayesian hurdle model has the benefit of providing a set of good trees for use in the first step and appears to provide enough flexibility to represent the influence of variables on strong resistance compared to the frequentist model, but also captures the subtle changes in the trend that are missed by the frequentist and naive Bayesian models.