European climate variations over the past half-millennium reconstructed from groundwater

Temperature reconstructions for recent centuries are the basis of estimations of the natural variability in the climate system before and during the onset of anthropogenic perturbation. Here we present, for the first time, an independent and physically based reconstruction of mean annual temperature over the past half millennium obtained from groundwater in France. The reconstructed noble gas temperature (NGT) record suggests cooler than present climate conditions throughout the 16th-19th centuries. Periods of warming occur in the 17th-18th and 20th century, while cooling is reconstructed in the 19th century. A noticeable coincidence with other temperature records is demonstrated. Deuterium excess varies in parallel with the NGT, and indicates variation in the seasonality of the aquifer recharge; whereas high excess air in groundwater indicates periods with high oscillations of the water table.

Flore alpine et réchauffement climatique: observation de trois sommets valaisans à travers le XXe siècle

Alpine flora and climate change: monitoring of three summits in Valais (Switzerland) during the 20th century Climate change might trigger an upward shift of the flora in the Swiss Alps, especially since these experienced higher change in average than observed on a global scale. Previous investigations in the canton des Grisons (Switzerland) and Austria have revealed an increase of floristic diversity on alpine summits since the beginning of the 20th century. Three summits in Valais were revisited in this study: the Gornergrat (first inventory in 1919), the Torrenthorn (about in 1885) and the Beaufort (about in 1920). Every summit was newly inventoried in 2003 in the framework of the PERMANENT.PLOT.CH project. All showed a strong increase in species richness. On the Gornergrat (3135 m), 16 species were not found anymore, but 35 new ones were observed. The number of species on this exceptionally rich summit rose from 102 to 121. In comparison, the floristic richness increased from 24 to 63 species on the Torrenthorn (2924 m) and from 16 to 48 species on the Beaufort (3048 m). As in previous studies, this increase seems likely to be associated with climate change: the new species prefer, in average, higher temperature conditions than those previously prevailing on the summits. On the Gornergrat and Beaufort, our observations reveal a development of alpine meadows, whereas species typical of rocks and raw soils are predominantly colonising the Torrenthorn. This difference might be related to the important damage caused by wanderers on the vegetation of the Torrenthorn.

Propietarios, aparceros y expedientes judiciales. La lucha por la tierra en Lleida durante el primer franquismo

El objetivo del trabajo es el de analizar las posibilidades que ofrecen las actas de conciliación de los juzgados de paz municipales como fuente privilegiada para el estudio de la conflictividad rural durante el siglo XX. Pretende mostrar cómo las actas permiten (todo y siendo muy difícil una aproximación cuantitativa exhaustiva) un análisis cualitativo que proporciona una imagen distinta y complementaria del impacto de las coyunturas económicas y las políticas agrarias sobre las unidades de producción domésticas: una imagen donde la lucha cotidiana por la propiedad y tenencia de la tierra, el endeudamiento y el incumplimiento de las obligaciones hereditarias, entre otros muchos, son aspectos que emergen a la superficie. En la medida en que, además, dicho análisis empírico se inscribe en un contexto (el de las tierras de Lleida durante los años de la autarquía económica) que ya empezamos a conocer con bastante minuciosidad, los resultados obtenidos adquieren una nueva dimensión y permiten calibrar de un modo más preciso los costos sociales que supuso, para la mayor parte de la población rural de la Cataluña interior, la puesta en funcionamiento del programa económico del régimen del general Franco. PALABRAS CLAVE: Conflictividad, franquismo, juicios, Cataluña, Lleida.

Fantasmas insurrectos

Aquí se verá cómo la senda marcada por la heterología de Bataille, nueva ciencia de los fantasmas nacida de las ruinas del racionalismo ilustrado y del monoteísmo religioso, permite trazar el mapa de otras sendas, ocultas y secretas, que también buscaron la insurrección contra la razón dominante en el cuerpo social y en el cuerpo individual; y se verá sobre todo, finalmente, paseando por el viejo París en compañía de Desnos, cómo las cruentas victorias sobre nuestros fantasmas, así como los monumentos que las celebran, se han erigido siempre a costa de los inocentes

Spatiotemporal variability in radial growth of trees in the Central Pyrenees: climatic and site influences.

To understand how tree growth has responded to recent climate warming, an understanding of the tree-climate-site complex is necessary. To achieve this, radial growth variability among 204 trees established before 1850 was studied in relation to both climatic and site factors. Seventeen forest stands were sampled in the Spanish Central Pyrenees. Three species were studied: Pinus uncinata, Abies alba, and Pinus sylvestris. For each tree, a ring-width residual chronology was built. All trees cross-dated well, indicating a common influence of the regional climate. For the 1952-1993 period, the radial growth of all species, especially P. uncinata, was positively correlated with warm Novembers during the year before ring formation and warm Mays of the year the annual ring formed. Differences in species-stand elevation modulated the growth-climate associations. Radial growth in P. uncinata at high elevation sites was reduced when May temperatures were colder and May precipitation more abundant. In the 20th century, two contrasting periods in radial growth were observed: one (1900-1949) with low frequency of narrow and wide rings, low mean annual sensitivity, and low common growth variation; and another (1950-1994) with the reverse characteristics. The increased variability in radial growth since the 1950s was observed for all species and sites, which suggests a climatic cause. The low shared variance among tree chronologies during the first half of the 20th century may result from a"relaxation" of the elevation gradient, allowing local site conditions to dominate macroclimatic influence. These temporal trends may be related to the recently reported increase of climatic variability and warmer conditions. This study emphasizes the need to carefully assess the relationships between radial growth and site conditions along ecological gradients to improve dendroclimatic reconstructions.

Die Konstruktion einer medizinischen Disziplin und ihre Herausforderungen: die Orthopädie in der Schweiz im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert [The construction of a medical discipline and its challenges: Orthopedics in Switzerland during the 19th and 20th centuries].

(ENGLISH VERSION BELOW) Dieser Beitrag fügt sich in eine post-doktorale Forschung über die Geschichte der Orthopädie ein, die unter dem Mandat des Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV) geleitet wird und teilerweise auf die Archiv der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Orthopädie (aktuelle Swiss Orthopaedics) beruht. Die Autorin untersucht die Herausforderungen, welche die Geschichte der Orthopädie in der Schweiz prägten und berücksichtigt dabei die Anpassungsstrategien einer medizinischen und technischen Disziplin in einer sich wandelnden Gesellschaft. Zusammenfassung der Beitrag und Informationen auf der Website der Zeitschrift: http://econtent.hogrefe.com/toc/tum/72/7 This article is inspired by a post-doctorale research about the history of orthopedics, mandated by the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), and partly supported by the Archiv of the Swiss Society of Orthopedics (nowadays Swiss Orthopaedics). By examining the implications that have shaped the history of orthopedics in Switzerland, the author seeks to shed light on the strategies that were implemented in adopting a medical and technical discipline within a transforming society. Summary of the article and information on the journal's website: http://econtent.hogrefe.com/toc/tum/72/7

Hydrological evidence for a North Atlantic oscillation during the Little Ice Age outside its range observed since 1850.

An annual-resolved precipitation reconstruction for the last 800 yr in Southern Spain has been performed using stable carbon isotope (δ13C) of Pinus nigra tree rings. The reconstruction exhibits high- to low-frequency variability and distinguishes a Little Ice Age (LIA, AD 13501850) characterized by lower averaged rainfall than both in the transition from the Medieval Climate Anomaly to the LIA and in the 20th century. The driest conditions are recorded during the Maunder solar Minimum (mid 17thearly 18th centuries), in good agreement with the Spanish documentary archive. Similar linkage between solar activity (maximum/minimum) and precipitation (increase/decrease) is observed throughout the entire LIA. Additionally, the relationship between the hydrological pattern in the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco during the LIA suggests different spatial distribution of precipitation in the south-eastern sector of the North Atlantic region such as it is known currently. Whereas in the instrumental record the precipitation evolves similarly in both regions and opposite to the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO) index, the coldest periods of the LIA shows a contrasting pattern with drier conditions in the South of Spain and wetter in Northern Africa. We suggest an extreme negative NAO conditions, accompanied by a southward excursion of the winter rainfall band beyond that observed in the last century, can explain this contrast. The sustained NAO conditions could have been triggered by solar minima and higher volcanic activity during the LIA.

Validation of French and German versions of a Perceived Neighborhood Social Cohesion questionnaire among young Swiss males, and its relationship with substance use

This study main purpose was the validation of both French and German versions of a Perceived Neighborhood Social Cohesion Questionnaire. The sample group comprised 5065 Swiss men from the "Cohort Study on Substance Use Risk Factors." Multigroup Confirmatory factor analysis showed that a three-factor model fits the data well, which substantiates the generalizability of Perceived Neighborhood Social Cohesion Questionnaire factor structure, regardless of the language. The Perceived Neighborhood Social Cohesion Questionnaire demonstrated excellent homogeneity (α = 95) and split-half reliability (r = .96). The Perceived Neighborhood Social Cohesion Questionnaire was sensitive to community size and participants' financial situation, confirming that it also measures real social conditions. Finally, weak but frequent correlations between Perceived Neighborhood Social Cohesion Questionnaire and alcohol, cigarette, and cannabis dependence were measured.

Mercado del libro y empresas editoriales entre el Centenario de Independencias y la Guerra Civil española: la editorial Sudamericana

[spa]Las estrategias comerciales de los libreros y editores españoles para desembarcar en los mercados americanos son analizadas en un contexto signado por las tendencias americanistas en el plano político y las iniciativas regeneracionistas en el económico durante el periodo que va del Centenario de las Independencias hasta la Guerra Civil española. Se abordan algunas de las políticas empresariales editoriales implementadas en Cataluña, el liderazgo ejercido por esta región como epicentro del proyecto hispano, y finalmente las condiciones que permitieron la creación de la editorial Sudamericana en Buenos Aires ante la inminencia del triunfo franquista. Los ejes de estudio son las estrategias editoriales y comerciales; el peso de las asociaciones y corporaciones patronales del libro; y los vínculos tejidos con el sector intelectual argentino en las primeras décadas del siglo XX a través de delegaciones consulares, instituciones culturales y cámaras españolas de comercio.

El enfoque financiero vs. el enfoque social del microcrédito. un análisis comparativo mundial

La oferta del microcrédito por parte de las instituciones microfinancieras distingue dos enfoques, el llamado 'alivio de la pobreza' y el de 'autosostenibilidad financiera'. En este trabajo se hace una comparativa mundial de cuatro regiones de países en vías de desarrollo con el fin de identificar bajo qué enfoque la población accede al microcrédito y a su vez verificar si existe un trade off entre ambos enfoques. Para su contrastación se han utilizado diez indicadores financieros y sociales clasificados en dos categorías, la sostenibilidad financiera y el alcance (nivel de pobreza). Los resultados obtenidos concluyen que el modelo financiero se presenta con más notoriedad en las regiones de América Latina y el Caribe y Oriente Medio/África del Norte mientras que en África prevalece el modelo social y en la región de Asia Meridional se aprecia un equilibrio entre ambos enfoques. Igualmente, se constata la contribución al alivio de la pobreza cuando el acceso del microcrédito se dirige mayoritariamente a la mujer.

Das persönliche Glück auf dem unpersönlichen Markt. Deutsche und finnische Kontaktanzeigen im 20. Jahrhundert - eine kontrastive und diachrone Textsortenuntersuchung

Min avhandling är en diakronisk och kontrastiv undersökning av texttyper. Forskningsmaterialet består av kontaktannonser i tidningarna Süddeutsche Zeitung och Helsingin Sanomat under tiden 1900 – 1999. Materialet består av 652 tyska och 538 finska annonser. De undersökta annonserna har publicerats i maj och har samlats från ovannämnda tidningar vart tionde år. Materialet har analyserats med ett statistiskt SPSS-program. I avhandlingen analyseras utvecklingen av ovannämnda texttyp under hundra år i två olika kulturer, den tyska och den finska. Syftet med avhandlingen är att med hjälp av detta material finna språkliga och kulturella likheter och skillnader i kontaktannonser. Utgångspunkten är att språkliga uttryck avspeglar sin tids samhälleliga värderingar, vilka således också påverkar sökandet efter en livskamrat. Analysresultaten granskas sålunda i ett större samhälleligt sammanhang under olika decennier. Annonstexterna undersöks dock inte utgående från enskilda samhälleliga skeenden. Avhandlingen analyserar 13 olika informationsenheter i kontaktannonserna, huruvida dessa enheter förekommer under hela den aktuella perioden och om samma informationsenheter förekommer i annonser i de båda kulturerna. Avhandlingen är sålunda intra- och interlingual samt interkulturell. Genom denna metod får man fram de kännetecken som är betecknande för denna texttyp under en viss tid i de bägge kulturerna. Avhandlingen är indelad i tre delar. Den första delen ger bakgrundsinformation om äktenskapets och familjebegreppets historia samt om uppkomsten av den tyska och finska pressen. Den andra teoretiska delen behandlar text- och texttyplingvistik samt nuvarande forskning inom dessa områden. Den tredje och mest omfattade delen består av en kvalitativ och kvantitativ analys, som omfattar 11 olika forskningsdelar. Undersökningen visar att man i texttypen kontaktannonser kan upptäcka skillnader t ex redan däri att en tysk annons skiljer sig från en finsk vad längd och informationsmängd beträffar. En finsk annons förlitar sig i sin språkliga knapphet på att läsaren förstår kontexten i texttypen. Av avhandlingen framgår också att vid analys av texttyper bör deras historiska och kulturella kontext beaktas, eftersom analysen påvisar att texttyperna är historie- och kulturbundna.

Silk and ink. What were silk wallets, and what can they, together with Jacobina Charlotta Munterhjelm’s diary, tell us about the gentry women’s lives in the 18th and 19th century?

The subject of this thesis is the elaborate silk wallets and what can they tell about the gentry women’s lives in the 18th and 19th century Finland together Jacobina Charlotta Munsterhjelm’s diary. Silk wallets were made of silk and decorated by embroidering, they were used to preserve memorabilia and letters. Making these lavish items took time, skills and materials, and the decorations usually contained symbols and messages. As main source there are silk wallets from the collections of the National Museum of Finland and Satakunta Museum, as well as the diary of Jacobina Munsterhjelm from 1799 to 1801. By interpreting these items we can build a picture of gentry women’s lives. The culture of silk wallets is European, the silk wallet phenomenon studied is Swedish-Finnish, and the research is limited mainly in Finland by its sources. This research has been carried out by constructing a cultural context to the silk wallets with the help of Ginzburg’s methods from his work Juusto ja madot - 1500-luvun myllärin maailmankuva. Silk wallets represent the gentry as well as the communication culture in the 18th and 19th centuries, but have remained unstudied. The thesis consists of two parts, the first focuses on the silk wallets, from where were they developed, how they were made, and to their decorations. The silk wallet culture developed among the gentry handicrafts during the 18th century and faded during the early 20th century. The making of the silk wallets demanded time, skills and materials. The decorations contain messages and symbols – they contain the possible affections the makers might have toward the receiver, and reflect the status and qualities of the receiver. The second part examines the makers, the gentry women, and the handicraft culture which played a big role in their lives, through silk wallets and the diary of Jacobina Munstehjelm. From there it continues to the affections and meanings which can be found from the silk wallets.

Näyttelijän taide venäläisessä elokuvassa 1907-1919

Väitöskirjan aihe on, kuinka elokuvanäyttelijän taide ja sitä koskeva ajattelu kehittyivät Venäjällä yksityisen elokuvatuotannon vuosina 1907–1919. Tutkimus kuuluu kulttuurihistorian alaan. Sen näkökulma on elokuvan esteettinen historia, ja tutkimus liittyy ns. revisionistisen elokuvahistorian pyrkimykseen arvioida uudelleen näytelmäelokuvan varhaisvaiheita. Analyysi kohdistuu esteettiseen aikalaisajatteluun sekä elokuvatuotannon käytäntöihin ja prosesseihin. Lähteinä on käytetty elokuvanäyttelemistä koskevaa julkista keskustelua, elokuvantekijöiden jättämää muistietoa ja ajalta säilyneitä elokuvia. Käsittely jakautuu kolmeen väljän kronologisesti järjestettyyn lukuun. Luku 2 keskittyy venäläisen fiktioelokuvan varhaisvuosiin 1910-luvun taitteen molemmin puolin. Luku 3 käsittelee pitkän näytelmäelokuvan läpimurrosta alkunsa saanutta keskustelua psykologisesta elokuvasta. Luku 4 etenee maailmansodan vuosina nouseen kuvallisen, ohjaajakeskeisen elokuvakäsityksen kautta kohti varhaisen neuvostoelokuvan ajatusta näyttelijästä ”mallina”. Väitöskirjassa esitetään, että käsitys näyttelemisestä, ja sitä myötä elokuvasta yleensä, kävi tutkittuna ajanjaksona läpi kehämäisen kehityksen, jossa vuorottelivat käsitykset elokuvasta modernina ja elokuvasta traditiona. Tutkimus problematisoi myöhempää elokuvakäsitystä, jonka mukaan elokuvaestetiikan perusyksikkö on otos. Toisin kuin myöhempinä vuosikymmeninä 1910-luvulla näytteleminen oli avainkysymys, jonka kautta lähestyttiin elokuvan olemusta itseään. Venäjällä ajatukset elokuvanäyttelemisestä kehittyivät vuorovaikutuksessa saman ajan teatteriestetiikan kanssa, joskin elokuva miellettiin jo varhain erilliseksi taidemuodoksi. Tsaarinajan elokuvan vaikutusvaltaisimmaksi esteettiseksi ohjelmaksi muodostui psykologinen elokuva, jonka inspiraationa toimi osittain Konstantin Stanislavskin samaan aikaan kehittämä näyttelijäntyön järjestelmä. Elävä näyttelijä ja näyttelijän ”kokeminen” nähtiin ratkaisuna elokuvavälineen keskeisenä ongelmana pidettyyn mekaanisuuteen. Ajan studiokäytännöissä psykologinen lähestymistapa puolestaan merkitsi usein vastausten etsimistä teollisen elokuvatuotannon olosuhteista syntyneisiin ongelmiin.

Karl Polanyi, Athens and us: the contemporary significance of Polanyi's thought

Karl Polanyi is considered one of the most prominent social scientists of the 20th century. In his writings, an important concern was the relationship between the markets and the society (therefore, the state) as a whole; to discuss it, he introduced the concept of "embeddedness", fundamental for his study of the origins and consequences of the Industrial Revolution. An important part of his heritage is the study of the economic history of what he called "ancient societies," especially of Classical Greece. Polanyi used these studies to compare the ancient societies with his own times, in an effort to understand them all. This paper aims to relate Polanyi's work on the Athenian society with his studies about the modern times, showing that it is possible to draw lessons from Polanyi's thought on the relationship between the society, the state and the market that can help to design a political agenda for our days. In the first part, we present the most important aspects o the life and work of Polanyi, and in the second we discuss the most important aspects of his worldview. Then, in the third part, we study his view of the early Athenian economy; mainly, we focus on the coexistence of a kind of state planning and a market, showing how this understanding is crucial for the whole Polanyian legacy, with its emphasis in the comparison of different societies and times. We conclude by underlining the relevance of this interpretation advanced by Polanyi to understand the societies of our days, focusing on some proposals to extend his approach to deal with our contemporary problems.

Nietzsche's eternal recurrence of the same : the effect of logic abridgement, contradictions and inconsistencies

I will argue that the doctrine of eternal recurrence of the same no better interprets cosmology than pink elephants interpret zoology. I will also argue that the eternal-reiurn-of-the-same doctrine as what Magnus calls "existential imperative" is without possibility of application and thus futile. To facilitate those arguments, the validity of the doctrine of the eternal recurrence of the same will be tested under distinct rubrics. Although each rubric will stand alone, one per chapter, as an evaluation of some specific aspect of eternal recurrence, the rubric sequence has been selected to accommodate the identification of what I shall be calling logic abridgments. The conclusions to be extracted from each rubric are grouped under the heading CONCLUSION and appear immediately following rubric ten. Then, or if, at the end of a rubric a reader is inclined to wonder which rubric or topic is next, and why, the answer can be found at the top of the following page. The question is usually answered in the very first sentence, but always answered in the first paragraph. The first rubric has been placed in order by chronological entitlement in that it deals with the evolution of the idea of eternal recurrence from the time of the ancient Greeks to Nietzsche's August, 1881 inspiration. This much-recommended technique is also known as starting at the beginning. Rubric 1 also deals with 20th. Century philosophers' assessments of the relationship between Nietzsche and ancient Greek thought. The only experience of E-R, Zarathustra's mountain vision, is second only because it sets the scene alluded to in following rubrics. The third rubric explores .ii?.ih T jc,i -I'w Nietzsche's evaluation of rationality so that his thought processes will be understood appropriately. The actual mechanism of E-R is tested in rubric four...The scientific proof Nietzsche assembled in support of E-R is assessed by contemporary philosophers in rubric five. E-R's function as an ethical imperative is debated in rubrics six and seven.. .The extent to which E-R fulfills its purpose in overcoming nihilism is measured against the comfort assured by major world religions in rubric eight. Whether E-R also serves as a redemption for revenge is questioned in rubric nine. Rubric ten assures that E-R refers to return of the identically same and not merely the similar. In addition to assemblage and evaluation of all ten rubrics, at the end of each rubric a brief recapitulation of its principal points concludes the chapter. In this essay I will assess the theoretical conditions under which the doctrine cannot be applicable and will show what contradictions and inconsistencies follow if the doctrine is taken to be operable. Harold Alderman in his book Nietzsche's Gift wrote, the "doctrine of eternal recurrence gives us a problem not in Platonic cosmology, but in Socratic selfreflection." ^ I will illustrate that the recurrence doctrine's cosmogony is unworkable and that if it were workable, it would negate self-reflection on the grounds that selfreflection cannot find its cause in eternal recurrence of the same. Thus, when the cosmology is shown to be impossible, any expected ensuing results or benefits will be rendered also impossible. The so-called "heaviest burden" will be exposed as complex, engrossing "what if speculations deserving no linkings to reality. To identify ^Alderman p. 84 abridgments of logic, contradictions and inconsistencies in Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal recurrence of the same, I. will examine the subject under the following schedule. In Chapter 1 the ancient origins of recurrence theories will be introduced. ..This chapter is intended to establish the boundaries within which the subsequent chapters, except Chapter 10, will be confined. Chapter 2, Zarathustra's vision of E-R, assesses the sections of Thus Spoke Zarathustra in which the phenomenon of recurrence of the same is reported. ..Nihilism as a psychological difficulty is introduced in this rubric, but that subject will be studied in detail in Chapter 8. In Chapter 2 the symbols of eternal recurrence of the same will be considered. Whether the recurrence image should be of a closed ring or as a coil will be of significance in many sections of my essay. I will argue that neither symbolic configuration can accommodate Nietzsche's supposed intention. Chapter 3 defends the description of E-R given by Zarathustra. Chapter 4, the cosmological mechanics of E-R, speculates on the seriousness with which Nietzsche might have intended the doctrine of eternal recurrence to be taken. My essay reports, and then assesses, the argument of those who suppose the doctrine to have been merely exploratory musings by Nietzsche on cosmological hypotheses...The cosmogony of E-R is examined. In Chapter 5, cosmological proofs tested, the proofs for Nietzsche's doctrine of return of the same are evaluated. This chapter features the position taken by Martin ' Heidegger. My essay suggests that while Heidegger's argument that recurrence of the same is a genuine cosmic agenda is admirable, it is not at all persuasive. Chapter 6, E-R is an ethical imperative, is in essence the reporting of a debate between two scholars regarding the possibility of an imperative in the doctrine of recurrence. Their debate polarizes the arguments I intend to develop. Chapter 7, does E-R of the same preclude alteration of attitudes, is a continuation of the debate presented in Chapter 6 with the focus shifted to the psychological from the cosmological aspects of eternal recurrence of the same. Chapter 8, Can E-R Overcome Nihilism?, is divided into two parts. In the first, nihilism as it applies to Nietzsche's theory is discussed. ..In part 2, the broader consequences, sources and definitions of nihilism are outlined. My essay argues that Nietzsche's doctrine is more nihilistic than are the world's major religions. Chapter 9, Is E-R a redemption for revenge?, examines the suggestion extracted from Thus Spoke Zarathustra that the doctrine of eternal recurrence is intended, among other purposes, as a redemption for mankind from the destructiveness of revenge. Chapter 10, E-R of the similar refuted, analyses a position that an element of chance can influence the doctrine of recurrence. This view appears to allow, not for recurrence of the same, but recurrence of the similar. A summary will recount briefly the various significant logic abridgments, contradictions, and inconsistencies associated with Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal recurrence of the same. In the 'conclusion' section of my essay my own opinions and observations will be assembled from the body of the essay.