Expression and secretion of the atrial natriuretic peptide in human adipose tissue and preadipocytes.

OBJECTIVE: Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a secretory hormone displaying diuretic, natriuretic, and vasorelaxant activities. Recently, its lipolytic activity has been reported. Since the expression of ANP in adipose tissue has not been documented, we used real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to investigate the expression of ANP in human adipose tissue and preadipocytes. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: RNA was extracted from the human adipose tissue of severely obese premenopausal women as well as from human preadipocytes. For human preadipocytes, two cell systems were investigated: the human preadipose immortalized (Chub-S7) cells, a well-characterized human preadipose cell line, and primary preadipocytes derived from the stromal vascular fraction of the human adipose tissue. We measured the mRNA of ANP, of corin (a transmembrane serine protease involved in the conversion of pro-ANP to ANP) and of uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2; a control gene known to be ubiquitously expressed). The expression of ANP was also investigated using immunofluorescence and radioimmunoassay in Chub-S7 cells and human primary preadipocytes in culture. RESULTS: Our results indicate that ANP and corin are expressed at the mRNA level in human adipose tissue and preadipocytes. Immunofluorescence experiments demonstrated that pro-ANP was expressed in Chub-S7 cells. In addition, ANP secretion could be measured in Chub-S7 cells and human primary preadipocytes in culture. Rosiglitazone, a selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor type gamma (PPAR-gamma) agonist promoting adipocyte differentiation, was found to modulate both ANP expression and secretion in preadipocytes. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest the existence of an autocrine/paracrine system for ANP in the human adipose tissue whose implications in lipolysis and cardiovascular function need to be further explored.

PPARγ induces growth inhibition and apoptosis through upregulation of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 in gastric cancer cells

Peroxisome proliferator activator receptor-gamma (PPARγ) is a ligand-activated transcriptional factor involved in the carcinogenesis of various cancers. Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) is a tumor suppressor gene that has anti-apoptotic activity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the anticancer mechanism of PPARγ with respect to IGFBP-3. PPARγ was overexpressed in SNU-668 gastric cancer cells using an adenovirus gene transfer system. The cells in which PPARγ was overexpressed exhibited growth inhibition, induction of apoptosis, and a significant increase in IGFBP-3 expression. We investigated the underlying molecular mechanisms of PPARγ in SNU-668 cells using an IGFBP-3 promoter/luciferase reporter system. Luciferase activity was increased up to 15-fold in PPARγ transfected cells, suggesting that PPARγ may directly interact with IGFBP-3 promoter to induce its expression. Deletion analysis of the IGFBP-3 promoter showed that luciferase activity was markedly reduced in cells without putative p53-binding sites (-Δ1755, -Δ1795). This suggests that the critical PPARγ-response region is located within the p53-binding region of the IGFBP-3 promoter. We further demonstrated an increase in PPARγ-induced luciferase activity even in cells treated with siRNA to silence p53 expression. Taken together, these data suggest that PPARγ exhibits its anticancer effect by increasing IGFBP-3 expression, and that IGFBP-3 is a significant tumor suppressor.

The role of PPARgamma in cartilage growth and development using cartilage-specific PPARgamma knockout mice

Le cartilage est un tissu conjonctif composé d’une seule sorte de cellule nommée chondrocytes. Ce tissu offre une fondation pour la formation des os. Les os longs se développent par l'ossification endochondral. Ce processus implique la coordination entre la prolifération, la différenciation et l'apoptose des chondrocytes, et résulte au remplacement du cartilage par l'os. Des anomalies au niveau du squelette et des défauts liés à l’âge tels que l’arthrose (OA) apparaissent lorsqu’il y a une perturbation dans l’équilibre du processus de développement. À ce jour, les mécanismes exacts contrôlant la fonction et le comportement des chondrocytes pendant la croissance et le développement du cartilage sont inconnus. Le récepteur activateur de la prolifération des peroxysomes (PPAR) gamma est un facteur de transcription impliqué dans l'homéostasie des lipides. Plus récemment, son implication a aussi été suggérée dans l'homéostasie osseuse. Cependant, le rôle de PPARγ in vivo dans la croissance et le développement du cartilage est inconnu. Donc, pour la première fois, cette étude examine le rôle spécifique de PPARγ in vivo dans la croissance et le développement du cartilage. Les souris utilisées pour l’étude avaient une délétion conditionnelle au cartilage du gène PPARγ. Ces dernières ont été générées en employant le système LoxP/Cre. Les analyses des souris ayant une délétion au PPARγ aux stades embryonnaire et adulte démontrent une réduction de la croissance des os longs, une diminution des dépôts de calcium dans l’os, de la densité osseuse et de la vascularisation, un délai dans l’ossification primaire et secondaire, une diminution cellulaire, une perte d’organisation colonnaire et une diminution des zones hypertrophiques, une désorganisation des plaques de croissance et des chondrocytes déformés. De plus, la prolifération et la différenciation des chondrocytes sont anormales. Les chondrocytes et les explants isolés du cartilage mutant démontrent une expression réduite du facteur de croissance endothélial vasculaire (VEGF)-A et des éléments de production de la matrice extracellulaire. Une augmentation de l’expression de la métalloprotéinase matricielle (MMP)-13 est aussi observée. Dans les souris âgées ayant une délétion au PPARγ, y est aussi noté des phénotypes qui ressemblent à ceux de l’OA tel que la dégradation du cartilage et l'inflammation de la membrane synoviale, ainsi qu’une augmentation de l’expression de MMP-13 et des néoépitopes générés par les MMPs. Nos résultats démontrent que le PPARγ est nécessaire pour le développement et l’homéostasie du squelette. PPARγ est un régulateur essentiel pour la physiologie du cartilage durant les stades de croissance, de développement et de vieillissement.

Degree of oxidation of low density lipoprotein affects expression of CD36 and PPAR gamma, but not cytokine production, by human monocyte-macrophages

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) exhibits many atherogenic effects, including the promotion of monocyte recruitment to the arterial endothelium and the induction of scavenger receptor expression. However, while atherosclerosis involves chronic inflammation within the arterial intima, it is unclear whether oxLDL alone provides a direct inflammatory stimulus for monocyte-macrophages. Furthermore, oxLDL is not a single, well-defined entity, but has structural and physical properties which vary according to the degree of oxidation. We tested the hypothesis that the biological effects of oxLDL will vary according to its degree of oxidation and that some species of oxLDL will have atherogenic properties, while other species may be responsible for its inflammatory activity. The atherogenic and inflammatory properties of LDL oxidized to predetermined degrees (mild, moderate and extensive oxidation) were investigated in a single system using human monocyte-derived macrophages. Expression of CD36 mRNA was up-regulated by mildly- and moderately-oxLDL, but not highly-oxLDL. The expression of the transcription factor, proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), which has been proposed to positively regulate the expression of CD36, was increased to the greatest degree by highly-oxLDL. However, the DNA binding activity of PPARgamma was increased only by mildly- and moderately-oxLDL. None of the oxLDL species appeared to be pro-inflammatory towards monocytes, either directly or indirectly through mediators derived from lymphocytes, regardless of the degree of oxidation. (C) 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd.

Efeito Diabetes mellitus gestacional na modulação de genes relacionados ao metabolismo mitocondrial e a implicação na predisposiçao do recém-nascido à obesidade

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Tauroursodeoxycholic Acid Affects PPAR gamma and TLR4 in Steatotic Liver Transplantation

Numerous steatotic livers are discarded for transplantation because of their poor tolerance to ischemia-reperfusion (I/R). We examined whether tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), a known inhibitor of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, protects steatotic and nonsteatotic liver grafts preserved during 6 h in University of Wisconsin (UW) solution and transplanted. The protective mechanisms of TUDCA were also examined. Neither unfolded protein response (UPR) induction nor ER stress was evidenced in steatotic and nonsteatotic liver grafts after 6 h in UW preservation solution. TUDCA only protected steatotic livers grafts and did so through a mechanism independent of ER stress. It reduced proliferator-activated receptor-gamma(PPAR gamma) and damage. When PPAR gamma was activated, TUDCA did not reduce damage. TUDCA, which inhibited PPAR gamma, and the PPAR gamma antagonist treatment up-regulated toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), specifically the TIR domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN beta (TRIF) pathway. TLR4 agonist treatment reduced damage in steatotic liver grafts. When TLR4 action was inhibited, PPAR gamma antagonists did not protect steatotic liver grafts. In conclusion, TUDCA reduced PPAR gamma and this in turn up-regulated the TLR4 pathway, thus protecting steatotic liver grafts. TLR4 activating-based strategies could reduce the inherent risk of steatotic liver failure after transplantation.

PPAR-gamma expression in peritoneal endometriotic lesions correlates with pain experienced by patients

Endometriosis is a significant gynecologic condition that can cause both pain and infertility and affects up to 15% of women during their reproductive years. In peritoneal endometriotic lesions, the expression of peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor gamma, a nuclear receptor with antiinflammatory and neuroprotective roles, is positively correlated with the pain reported by patients.

Ontogeny of mRNA abundance of nuclear receptors and nuclear receptor target genes in young cattle

After birth the development of appropriate detoxification mechanisms is important. Nuclear receptors (NR), such as constitutive androstane receptor (CAR), pregnane X receptor (PXR), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARalpha), retinoid receptors (RAR, RXR), and NR target genes are involved in the detoxification of exogenous and endogenous substances. We quantified abundances of hepatic mRNA of NR and several NR target genes (cytochromes, CYP; cytochrome P450 reductase, CPR; UDP-glucuronosyl transferase, UDP) in calves at different ages. Gene expression was quantified by real-time RT-PCR. Abundance of mRNA of CAR and PXR increased from low levels at birth in pre-term calves (P0) and full-term calves (F0) to higher levels in 5-day-old calves (F5) and in 159-day-old veal calves (F159), whereas mRNA levels of PPARalpha did not exhibit significant ontogenetic changes. RARbeta mRNA levels were higher in F5 and F159 than in F0, whereas no age differences were observed for RARalpha levels. Levels of RXRalpha and RXRbeta mRNA were lower in F5 than in P0 and F0. Abundance of CYP2C8 and CYP3A4 increased from low levels in P0 and F0 to higher levels in F5 and to highest levels in F159. Abundance of CPR was transiently decreased in F0 and F5 calves. Levels of UGT1A1 mRNA increased from low levels in P0 and F0 to maximal level in F5 and F159. In conclusion, mRNA levels of NR and NR target genes exhibited ontogenetic changes that are likely of importance for handling of xeno- and endobiotics with increasing age.

The role of coactivator associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1) in nuclear receptor mediated transcription

Arginine methylation has been implicated in the regulation of gene expression. The coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARMI/PRMT4) binds the p160 family of steroid receptor coactivators (SRCs). This association enhances transcriptional activation by nuclear receptors. Here, we generated and characterized CARM1 knockout mice. Embryos with a targeted disruption of CARM1 are 35% smaller in size than the wild-type littermates and die perinatally. We also generated Carm1-/- and Carm1+/+ mouse embryonic fibroblasts and tested gene expression in response to estrogen. Estrogenresponsive gene expression was aberrant in Carm1-/- fibroblasts and embryos, thus emphasizing the role of arginine methylation as a transcription activation tag. We subsequently studied the role of CARM1 in estrogen signaling in viva in the mammary gland. Conditional knockout of CARM1 in mammary gland and Carml-1-embryonic mammary anlagen transplant experiments did not show any defects in growth and development of the glands. To further dissect the role of CARM1 in estrogen receptor mediated transactivation, we performed cDNA microarray and serial analysis of gene expression on Carm1-/- and Carm1+/+ embryos treated with the estrogen analog, DES. Our results indicate global changes in estrogen regulated genes as well as genes involved in lipid homeostasis. Marker genes for Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor γ (PPARγ) activity, adipsin and aP2, are downregulated in the Carm1-/- embryos. Furthermore, OCT frozen sections of 18.5dpc embryos, processed simultaneously for oil red O staining to look for neutral fat, reveals greatly reduced brown fat accumulation in the Carm1-/- embryos in contrast to wild-type and gain-of-function Carm1 transgenic (ubiquitous) embryo. We used a well-established 3T3-L1 preadipocyte cell line to knockdown CARM1 by short hairpin RNA. 3T3-L1 cells with CARM1 knockdown showed greatly reduced potential to differentiate into mature lipid accumulating adipocytes upon administration of adipogenic stimuli. Ligand-dependent activation of reporter genes by the PPARγ receptor showed that PPRE-luciferase reporter activity was enhanced in the presence of CARM1, additionally, luciferase activity was reduced to background levels when enzyme dead CARM1 (CARM1-VLD) was used. Thus, in this study, we have identified novel pathways that use CARM1 as coactivator and showed that CARM1 functions as a key component of PPARγ receptor mediated gene expression. ^

Reduction of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout mice by activation of the retinoid X receptor

A common feature of many metabolic pathways is their control by retinoid X receptor (RXR) heterodimers. Dysregulation of such metabolic pathways can lead to the development of atherosclerosis, a disease influenced by both systemic and local factors. Here we analyzed the effects of activation of RXR and some of its heterodimers in apolipoprotein E −/− mice, a well established animal model of atherosclerosis. An RXR agonist drastically reduced the development of atherosclerosis. In addition, a ligand for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ and a dual agonist of both PPARα and PPARγ had moderate inhibitory effects. Both RXR and liver X receptor (LXR) agonists induced ATP-binding cassette protein 1 (ABC-1) expression and stimulated ABC-1-mediated cholesterol efflux from macrophages from wild-type, but not from LXRα and β double −/−, mice. Hence, activation of ABC-1-mediated cholesterol efflux by the RXR/LXR heterodimer might contribute to the beneficial effects of rexinoids on atherosclerosis and warrant further evaluation of RXR/LXR agonists in prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis.

Peroxisome proliferators induce mouse liver stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 gene expression.

Peroxisome proliferators induce stearoyl-CoA desaturase activity (EC 1.14.99.5) in liver [Kawashima, Y., Hanioka, N., Matsumura, M. & Kozuka, H. (1983) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 752, 259-264]. We analyzed the changes in stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) mRNA to further define the molecular mechanism for the induction of stearoyl-CoA desaturase by peroxisome proliferators. SCD1 mRNA was analyzed from the livers of BALB/c mice that had been fed diets supplemented with clofibrate or gemfibrozil. Clofibrate was found to induce liver SCD1 mRNA levels 3-fold within 6 hr to a maximum of 22-fold in 30 hr. Gemfibrozil administration resulted in a similar induction pattern. This induction is primarily due to an increase in transcription of the SCD1 gene, as shown by nuclear run-on transcription assays and DNA deletion analysis of transfected SCD1-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase fusion genes. The cis-linked response element for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) was localized to an AGGTCA consensus sequence between base pairs -664 to -642 of the SCD1 promoter. Clofibrate-mediated induction of SCD1 mRNA was shown to be independent of polyunsaturated fatty acids, with peroxisome proliferators and arachidonic acid having opposite effects on SCD1 mRNA levels. Additionally, the activation of SCD1 mRNA by clofibrate was inhibited 77% by cycloheximide administration. Levels of liver beta-actin and albumin mRNAs were unchanged by these dietary manipulations. Our data show that hepatic SCD1 gene expression is regulated by PPARs and suggest that peroxisome proliferators and poly-unsaturated fatty acids act through distinct mechanisms.

Inhibition of COXs and 5-LOX and activation of PPARs by Australian Clematis species (Ranunculaceae)

The species of Clematis (Ranunculaceae) have been traditionally used for inflammatory conditions by indigenous Australians. We have previously reported that the ethanol extract of Clematis pickeringii inhibited COX-1. In this study, we examined the ethanol extracts and fractions of three Clematis species, Clematis pickeringii, Clematis glycinoides and Clematis microphylla, on cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX). We further examined the activating effects on the protein expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR alpha) and gamma (PPAR-gamma) in HepG2 cells. The ethanol extracts of three Clematis species inhibited the activities of COX-1, COX-2 and 5-LOX in the different extents. The stem extract of Clematis pickeringii showed the highest inhibitory activities among the three species on COX-1, COX-2 and 5-LOX with the IC50 values of 73.5, 101.2 and 29.3 mu g/mL. One of its fractions also significantly elevated PPAR gamma expression by 173, 280 and 435% and PPAR gamma expression by 140, 228 and 296% at 4, 8 and 16 mu g/mL, respectively. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

New drugs for type 2 diabetes mellitus:what is their place in therapy?

Oral therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus, when used appropriately, can safely assist patients to achieve glycaemic targets in the short to medium term. However, the progressive nature of type 2 diabetes usually requires a combination of two or more oral agents in the longer term, often as a prelude to insulin therapy. Issues of safety and tolerability, notably weight gain, often limit the optimal application of anti-diabetic drugs such as sulforylureas and thiazolidinediones. Moreover, the impact of different drugs, even within a single class, on the risk of long-term vascular complications has come under scrutiny. For example, recent publication of evidence suggesting potential detrimental effects of rosiglitazone on myocardial events generated a heated debate and led to a reduction in use of this drug. In contrast, current evidence supports the view that pioglitazone has vasculoprotective properties. Both drugs are contraindicated in patients who are at risk of heart failure. An additional recently identified safety concern is an increased risk of fractures, especially in postmenopausal women. Several new drugs with glucose-lowering efficacy that may offer certain advantages have recently become available. These include (i) injectable glucagonlike peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists and oral dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors; (ii) the amylin analogue pramlintide; and (iii) selective cannabinoid receptor-1 (CB1) antagonists. GLP-1 receptor agonists, such as exenatide, stimulate nutrient-induced insulin secretion and reduce inappropriate glucagon secretion while delaying gastric emptying and reducing appetite. These agents offer a low risk of hypoglycaemia combined with sustained weight loss. The DPP-4 inhibitors sitagliptin and vildagliptin are generally weight neutral, with less marked gastrointestinal adverse effects than the GLP-1 receptor agonists. Potential benefits of GLP-1 receptor stimulation on P cell neogenesis are under investigation. Pancreatitis has been reported in exenatide-treated patients. Pramlintide, an injected peptide used in combination with insulin, can reduce insulin dose and bodyweight. The CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant promotes weight loss and has favourable effects on aspects of the metabolic syndrome, including the hyperglycaemia of type 2 diabetes. However, in 2007 the US FDA declined approval of rimonabant, requiring more data on adverse effects, notably depression. The future of dual peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha/gamma agonists, or glitazars, is presently uncertain following concerns about their safety. In conclusion, several new classes of drugs have recently become available in some countries that offer new options for treating type 2 diabetes. Beneficial or neutral effects on bodyweight are an attractive feature of the new drugs. However, the higher cost of these agents, coupled with an absence of long-term safety and clinical outcome data, need to be taken into consideration by clinicians and healthcare organizations.

Leukotriene B(4)-loaded microspheres: a new therapeutic strategy to modulate cell activation

Background: Leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)) is a potent inflammatory mediator that also stimulates the immune response. In addition, it promotes polymorphonuclear leukocyte phagocytosis, chemotaxis, chemokinesis and modulates cytokines release. Regarding chemical instability of the leukotriene molecule, in the present study we assessed the immunomodulatory activities conferred by LTB(4) released from microspheres (MS). A previous oil-in-water emulsion solvent extraction-evaporation method was chosen to prepare LTB(4)-loaded MS. Results: In the mice cremasteric microcirculation, intraescrotal injection of 0.1 ml of LTB(4)-loaded MS provoked significant increases in leukocyte rolling flux, adhesion and emigration besides significant decreases in the leukocyte rolling velocity. LTB(4)-loaded MS also increase peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR alpha) expression by murine peritoneal macrophages and stimulate them to generate nitrite levels. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-I (MCP-I) and nitric oxide (NO) productions were also increased when human umbilical vein and artery endothelial cells (HUVECs and HUAECs, respectively) were stimulated with LTB(4)-loaded MS. Conclusion: LTB(4)-loaded MS preserve the biological activity of the encapsulated mediator indicating their use as a new strategy to modulate cell activation, especially in the innate immune response.

Papel do polimorfismo Pro12 Ala no gene PPAR Gama 2 na obesidade e diabetes mellitus tipo 2 - uma meta análise

A obesidade e a diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) são considerados dois grandes problemas de saúde pública. A má alimentação e a falta de atividade física encontram-se entre os principais desencadeadores de um crescente número de indivíduos obesos, diabéticos e com sensibilidade à insulina diminuída. Este aumento tem motivado a comunidade científica a investigar cada vez mais para o elevado contributo da herança genética associada aos fatores sociais e nutricionais. O gene dos recetores ativados por proliferadores do peroxissoma gama 2 (PPARγ2) desempenha um papel importante no metabolismo lipídico. Uma vez que o PPARγ2 é maioritariamente expresso no tecido adiposo, uma redução moderada da sua atividade tem influência na sensibilidade à insulina, diabetes, e outros parâmetros metabólicos. Vários estudos sugerem que tanto fatores genéticos como fatores ambientais (tais como a dieta), poderão estar envolvidos na formação de padrões associados ao polimorfismo Pro12Ala com a composição corporal em diferentes populações humanas. Os diversos estudos genéticos envolvendo o estudo do polimorfismo Pro12Ala do PPARγ2 na suscetibilidade de possuir risco de diabetes e obesidade em várias populações têm proposto conclusões diversas. Em alguns parece haver mais associações do que outros e, às vezes, não demonstram sequer associação. Desta forma, o presente trabalho teve como objectivo contribuir para a elucidação do impacto do polimorfismo Pro12Ala do PPARγ2 na resistência à insulina associada à DM2 e na obesidade, mediante estudo sistematizado da literatura existente até à data, através de meta análise. Do total de uma pesquisa de 63 publicações, foram incluídos 32 artigos no presente estudo, sendo que destes 25 foram incluídos na síntese qualitativa e 11 incluídos na sintese quantitativa. No presente trabalho pode-se concluir que existe evidência estatística que suporta a hipótese de que o polimorfismo Pro12Ala do PPARγ2 pode ser considerado um fator protetor para a DM2 [p <0,05 e OR (odds ratio) 0,702, com IC (intervalos de confiança) com valores que nunca incluem o 1]. No entanto, e mediante os mesmos pressupostos, o mesmo polimorfismo pode ser considerado um fator de risco ao desenvolvimento de obesidade, pela evidência estatística [p <0,05 e OR de 1,196, com IC com valores que nunca incluem o 1].