Microclimate and gas emissions in dairy buildings : Instrumentation, theory and measurements

The aim of this thesis was to develop measurement techniques and systems for measuring air quality and to provide information about air quality conditions and the amount of gaseous emissions from semi-insulated and uninsulated dairy buildings in Finland and Estonia. Specialization and intensification in livestock farming, such as in dairy production, is usually accompanied by an increase in concentrated environmental emissions. In addition to high moisture, the presence of dust and corrosive gases, and widely varying gas concentrations in dairy buildings, Finland and Estonia experience winter temperatures reaching below -40 ºC and summer temperatures above +30 ºC. The adaptation of new technologies for long-term air quality monitoring and measurement remains relatively uncommon in dairy buildings because the construction and maintenance of accurate monitoring systems for long-term use are too expensive for the average dairy farmer to afford. Though the documentation of accurate air quality measurement systems intended mainly for research purposes have been made in the past, standardised methods and the documentation of affordable systems and simple methods for performing air quality and emissions measurements in dairy buildings are unavailable. In this study, we built three measurement systems: 1) a Stationary system with integrated affordable sensors for on-site measurements, 2) a Wireless system with affordable sensors for off-site measurements, and 3) a Mobile system consisting of expensive and accurate sensors for measuring air quality. In addition to assessing existing methods, we developed simplified methods for measuring ventilation and emission rates in dairy buildings. The three measurement systems were successfully used to measure air quality in uninsulated, semi-insulated, and fully-insulated dairy buildings between the years 2005 and 2007. When carefully calibrated, the affordable sensors in the systems gave reasonably accurate readings. The spatial air quality survey showed high variation in microclimate conditions in the dairy buildings measured. The average indoor air concentration for carbon dioxide was 950 ppm, for ammonia 5 ppm, for methane 48 ppm, for relative humidity 70%, and for inside air velocity 0.2 m/s. The average winter and summer indoor temperatures during the measurement period were -7º C and +24 ºC for the uninsulated, +3 ºC and +20 ºC for the semi-insulated and +10 ºC and +25 ºC for the fully-insulated dairy buildings. The measurement results showed that the uninsulated dairy buildings had lower indoor gas concentrations and emissions compared to fully insulated buildings. Although occasionally exceeded, the ventilation rates and average indoor air quality in the dairy buildings were largely within recommended limits. We assessed the traditional heat balance, moisture balance, carbon dioxide balance and direct airflow methods for estimating ventilation rates. The direct velocity measurement for the estimation of ventilation rate proved to be impractical for naturally ventilated buildings. Two methods were developed for estimating ventilation rates. The first method is applicable in buildings in which the ventilation can be stopped or completely closed. The second method is useful in naturally ventilated buildings with large openings and high ventilation rates where spatial gas concentrations are heterogeneously distributed. The two traditional methods (carbon dioxide and methane balances), and two newly developed methods (theoretical modelling using Fick s law and boundary layer theory, and the recirculation flux-chamber technique) were used to estimate ammonia emissions from the dairy buildings. Using the traditional carbon dioxide balance method, ammonia emissions per cow from the dairy buildings ranged from 7 g day-1 to 35 g day-1, and methane emissions per cow ranged from 96 g day-1 to 348 g day-1. The developed methods proved to be as equally accurate as the traditional methods. Variation between the mean emissions estimated with the traditional and the developed methods was less than 20%. The developed modelling procedure provided sound framework for examining the impact of production systems on ammonia emissions in dairy buildings.

Essays on socially optimal phosphorus policies in crop production

Phosphorus is a nutrient needed in crop production. While boosting crop yields it may also accelerate eutrophication in the surface waters receiving the phosphorus runoff. The privately optimal level of phosphorus use is determined by the input and output prices, and the crop response to phosphorus. Socially optimal use also takes into account the impact of phosphorus runoff on water quality. Increased eutrophication decreases the economic value of surface waters by Deteriorating fish stocks, curtailing the potential for recreational activities and by increasing the probabilities of mass algae blooms. In this dissertation, the optimal use of phosphorus is modelled as a dynamic optimization problem. The potentially plant available phosphorus accumulated in soil is treated as a dynamic state variable, the control variable being the annual phosphorus fertilization. For crop response to phosphorus, the state variable is more important than the annual fertilization. The level of this state variable is also a key determinant of the runoff of dissolved, reactive phosphorus. Also the loss of particulate phosphorus due to erosion is considered in the thesis, as well as its mitigation by constructing vegetative buffers. The dynamic model is applied for crop production on clay soils. At the steady state, the analysis focuses on the effects of prices, damage parameterization, discount rate and soil phosphorus carryover capacity on optimal steady state phosphorus use. The economic instruments needed to sustain the social optimum are also analyzed. According to the results the economic incentives should be conditioned on soil phosphorus values directly, rather than on annual phosphorus applications. The results also emphasize the substantial effects the differences in varying discount rates of the farmer and the social planner have on optimal instruments. The thesis analyzes the optimal soil phosphorus paths from its alternative initial levels. It also examines how erosion susceptibility of a parcel affects these optimal paths. The results underline the significance of the prevailing soil phosphorus status on optimal fertilization levels. With very high initial soil phosphorus levels, both the privately and socially optimal phosphorus application levels are close to zero as the state variable is driven towards its steady state. The soil phosphorus processes are slow. Therefore, depleting high phosphorus soils may take decades. The thesis also presents a methodologically interesting phenomenon in problems of maximizing the flow of discounted payoffs. When both the benefits and damages are related to the same state variable, the steady state solution may have an interesting property, under very general conditions: The tail of the payoffs of the privately optimal path as well as the steady state may provide a higher social welfare than the respective tail of the socially optimal path. The result is formalized and an applied to the created framework of optimal phosphorus use.

Uusmaalaisten viljelijöiden arviot uudesta ympäristötuesta

The agro-environmental subsidy scheme is the most important agricultural environmental policy instrument used in Finland. The principal aim of the agro-environmental subsidy is to reimburse farmer the costs of using environmentally sounder farming practices and the measures that aim for preserving the environment. It also serves as an economic incentive for ensuring the large enough participation. The agro-environmental subsidy scheme is to be reformed in 2007. The main question answered in thesis was that whether farmers in Uusimaa region are ready to participate in the environmental subsidy scheme on the basis of the economical reasons or not. The focus is on farmers' opinions about how difficult it is to carry out measures of new environmental subsidy and do these measures change their ways of farming. The analysis is based on an empirical study of the farmers attitudes towards the new environmental subsidy scheme. The theoretical framework of this thesis is based on principal-agent theory and on the theory of the firm. In principal-agent theory environmental subsidy is interpreted as a deal in which farmers function as agents and government as a principal. Theory of the firm provides a theoretical framework for the analysis, through which we aim to analyse how rationally behaving farmer makes decisions by economical reasons to participate in the environment subsidy scheme. The thesis points out that presumably the participation percentage will stay high during the period of the new environmental subsidy scheme.

Identifying risk-efficient strategies using stochastic frontier analysis and simulation: An application to irrigated cropping in Australia

In irrigated cropping, as with any other industry, profit and risk are inter-dependent. An increase in profit would normally coincide with an increase in risk, and this means that risk can be traded for profit. It is desirable to manage a farm so that it achieves the maximum possible profit for the desired level of risk. This paper identifies risk-efficient cropping strategies that allocate land and water between crop enterprises for a case study of an irrigated farm in Southern Queensland, Australia. This is achieved by applying stochastic frontier analysis to the output of a simulation experiment. The simulation experiment involved changes to the levels of business risk by systematically varying the crop sowing rules in a bioeconomic model of the case study farm. This model utilises the multi-field capability of the process based Agricultural Production System Simulator (APSIM) and is parameterised using data collected from interviews with a collaborating farmer. We found sowing rules that increased the farm area sown to cotton caused the greatest increase in risk-efficiency. Increasing maize area also improved risk-efficiency but to a lesser extent than cotton. Sowing rules that increased the areas sown to wheat reduced the risk-efficiency of the farm business. Sowing rules were identified that had the potential to improve the expected farm profit by ca. $50,000 Annually, without significantly increasing risk. The concept of the shadow price of risk is discussed and an expression is derived from the estimated frontier equation that quantifies the trade-off between profit and risk.

Annual nitrogen dynamics and urea fertilizer recoveries from a dairy pasture using 15N; effect of nitrification inhibitor DMPP and reduced application rates

Direct nitrogen (N) losses from pastures contribute to the poor nitrogen use efficiency of the dairy industry, though the exact fate of applied N and the processes involved are largely unknown. Nitrification inhibitors such as DMPP can potentially increase fertilizer N use efficiency (NUE), though few studies globally have examined the effectiveness of DMPP coated urea in pastures. This study quantified the NUE of DMPP combined with reduced application rates, and the effect on N dynamics and plant–soil interactions over an annual ryegrass/kikuyu rotation in Queensland, Australia. Labeled 15N urea and DMPP was applied over 7 winter applications at standard farmer (45 kg N ha−1) and half (23 kg N ha−1) rates. Fertilizer recoveries and NUE were calculated over 13 harvests, and the contribution of fertilizer and soil N estimated. Up to 85% of the annual N harvested was from soil organic matter. DMPP at the lower rate increased annual yields by 31% compared to the equivalent urea treatment with no difference to the high N rates. Almost 40% of the N added at the conventional fertilizer application rate as urea was lost to the environment; 80 kg N ha−1 higher than the low DMPP. Combining the nitrification inhibitor DMPP with reduced fertilizer application rates shows substantial potential to reduce N losses to the environment while sustaining productivity in subtropical dairy pastures.

Structure and assembly of Sesbania mosaic virus

Sesbania mosaic virus (SeMV) is a ss-RNA (4149 nt) plant sobemovirus isolated from farmer's field around Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh. The viral capsid (30 nm diameter) consists of 180 copies of protein subunits (MW 29 kDa) organized with icosahedral symmetry. In order to understand the mechanism of assembly of SeMV, a large number of deletion and substitution mutants of the coat protein (CP) were constructed. Recombinant SeMV CP (rCP) as well as the N-terminal rCP deletion mutant Delta N22 were found to assemble in E. coli into virus-like particles (VLPs). Delta N36 and Delta N65 mostly formed smaller particles consisting of 60 protein subunits. Although particlem assembly was not affected due to the substitution of aspartates (D14 and D149) that coordinate calcium ions by asparagines, the stability of the resulting capsids was drastically reduced. Deletion of residues forming a characteristic beta-annulus at the icosahedral 3-folds did not affect the assembly of VLPs. Mutation of a single tryptophan, which occurs near the icosahedral fivefold axis to glutamate or lysine, resulted in the disruption of the capsid leading to soluble dimers that resembled the quasi-dimer structure of the native virus. Replacement of positively charged residues in the amino terminal segment of CP resulted in the formation of empty shells. Based on these observations, a plausible mechanism of assembly is proposed.

Sensor network deployment for agronomical data gathering in semi-arid regions

We share our experience in planning, designing and deploying a wireless sensor network of one square kilometre area. Environmental data such as soil moisture, temperature, barometric pressure, and relative humidity are collected in this area situated in the semi-arid region of Karnataka, India. It is a hope that information derived from this data will benefit the marginal farmer towards improving his farming practices. Soon after establishing the need for such a project, we begin by showing the big picture of such a data gathering network, the software architecture we have used, the range measurements needed for determining the sensor density, and the packaging issues that seem to play a crucial role in field deployments. Our field deployment experiences include designing with intermittent grid power, enhancing software tools to aid quicker and effective deployment, and flash memory corruption. The first results on data gathering look encouraging.

Juvenile diversity of tree species in Theobroma cacao L. agroforestry and primary forest – Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

This thesis studies the tree species’ juvenile diversity in cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) based agroforestry and in primary forest in a natural conservation forest environment of Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. Species’ adult composition in Lore Lindu National Park is relatively well studied, less is known about tree species’ diversity in seedling communities particularly in frequently disturbed cacao agroforestry field environment. Cacao production forms a potentially serious thread for maintaining the conservation areas pristine and forested in Sulawesi. The impacts of cacao production on natural environment are directly linked to the diversity and abundance of shade tree usage. The study aims at comparing differences between cacao agroforestry and natural forest in the surrounding area in their species composition in seedling and sapling size categories. The study was carried out in two parts. Biodiversity inventory of seedlings and saplings was combined with social survey with farmer interviews. Aim of the survey was to gain knowledge of the cacao fields, and farmers’ observations and choices regarding tree species associated with cacao. Data was collected in summer 2008. The assessment of the impact of environmental factors of solar radiation, weeding frequency, cacao tree planting density, distance to forest and distance to main park road, and type of habitat on seedling and sapling compositions was done with Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS). Outlier analysis was used to assess distorting variables for NMS, and Multi-Response Permutation Procedures (MRPP) analysis to differentiate the impact of categorical variables. Sampling success was estimated with rarefaction curves and jackknife estimate of species richness. In the inventory 135 species of trees and shrubs were found. Only some agroforestry related species were dominating. The most species rich were sapling communities in forest habitat. NMS was showing generally low linear correlation between variation of species composition and environmental variables. Solar radiation was having most significance as explaining variable. The most clearly separated in ordination were cacao and forest habitats. The results of seedling and sapling inventory were only partly coinciding with farmers’ knowledge of the tree species occurring on their fields. More research with frequent assessment of seedling cohorts is needed due to natural variability of cohorts and high mortality rate of seedlings.

Luonnonhoitopellot maatalousympäristön luonnon monimuotoisuuden edistämisessä

Luonnonhoitopellot lisättiin uutena vapaaehtoisena toimenpiteenä maatalouden ympäristötukeen vuonna 2009. Luonnonhoitopeltoihin kuuluvat monivuotiset nurmipellot sekä niitty-, riista- ja maisemakasveilla kylvetyt pellot. Toimenpiteen avulla pyritään suojelemaan ja lisäämään maatalousympäristön luonnon monimuotoisuutta sekä muun muassa vähentämään maatalouden ravinnehuuhtoumia. Vuonna 2010 luonnonhoitopeltoja oli yli seitsemän prosenttia Suomen viljelyalasta. Luonnonhoitopeltojen ympäristövaikutusten arvioiminen ja toimenpiteen kehittäminen on tärkeää, jotta toimenpiteeseen käytettävät varat eivät valu hukkaan. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää, millainen merkitys luonnonhoitopelloilla on maatalousympäristön monimuotoisuuden kannalta; millaiset luonnonhoitopellot ovat monimuotoisuuden kannalta arvokkaimpia; ja kuinka toimenpidettä kannattaa kehittää. Kysymyksiin pyrittiin vastaamaan tutkimalla putkilokasvilajistoa, -lajirikkautta ja kasvillisuuden rakennetta erilaisilla luonnonhoitopelloilla, sekä vertaamalla luonnonhoitopeltojen kasvillisuutta pientareiden ja niittyjen kasvillisuuteen. Maastotyö luonnonhoitopelloilla tehtiin kesällä 2010 Uudenmaan ja Pohjois-Pohjanmaan ELY-keskusalueilla. Lisäksi tutkimuslohkoista kerättiin tietoja viljelijäkyselyn kautta. Niittypellot osoittautuivat tutkimuksessa lajirikkaimmaksi luonnonhoitopeltotyypiksi, mikä selittynee lähinnä sillä, että ne kylvetään heikosti kilpailukykyisellä siemenseoksella. Nurmi- ja niittypelloilla lohkon viljavuus korreloi negatiivisesti lajirikkauden kanssa. Lajikoostumukseltaan kaikki luonnonhoitopellot eroavat toisistaan sekä maatalousympäristön puoliluonnontilaisista elinympäristöistä, ja lisäävät siten monimuotoisuutta maisematasolla. Luonnonhoitopeltojen lajisto ei ole kuitenkaan suojelun kannalta erityisen arvokasta. Toimenpiteen maatalousympäristöä rikastuttavaa vaikutusta vähentää, että tällä hetkellä valtaosa luonnonhoitopelloista on monivuotisia nurmipeltoja. Luonnonhoitopeltojen siemenseoksia kehittämällä, perustamis- ja hoitomenetelmiä tutkimalla ja neuvontaan panostamalla voidaan lisätä luonnonhoitopeltojen arvoa niin luonnon, viljelijän kuin yhteiskunnankin kannalta.

Suvun sisällä sovittua. Sukulaissijoitukset aikuistuneiden lasten näkökulmasta

Kautta aikain sukulaiset ovat huolehtineet sukulaistensa äidittömistä tai isättömistä lapsista, ja usein näin on toimittu sukulaisten keskinäisillä sopimuksilla. Sukulaisperheessä asumista on nimitetty esimerkiksi yksityissijoitukseksi ja siellä asuvaa kasvattilapseksi. Suomessa lastensuojelun virallisen sijaishuoltojärjestelmän suhtautuminen sukulaisperheisiin on vaihdellut eri aikoina. Yleisesti nähdään,että 1980-luvun puoliväliin asti sukulaisperheitä käytettiin paljon suomalaisessa lastensuojelussa, mutta hoitotyön ammatillistamispyrkimysten ja yhteiskunnallisen rakennekehityksen myötä niiden käyttö väheni, ja alkoi systemaattinen vieraiden sijaisperheiden etsiminen ja valmentaminen. Nykyään ollaan uudelleen tilanteessa, jossa on alettu huomioida sukulaisia ja muita lapsen luonnollisia verkostoja.Nykykeskustelun taustalla on kiihtynyt lastensuojelutarpeen kasvusuunta, jota vastaamaan tarvitaan lisää resursseja, ja yksi mahdollinen vaihtoehto haasteellisessa tilanteessa on sukulaissijoitus eli sukulaisten toteuttama perhehoito. Tässä aineistolähtöisessä laadullisessa tutkimuksessa ollaan kiinnostuneita sellaisten henkilöiden kokemuksista, jotka ovat jossakin lapsuutensa vaiheessa asuneet sukulaistensa luona. Fenomenologishermeneuttisen tutkimusotteen ja väljästi sovelletun narratiivisen tutkimuksen empiirinen aineisto on hankittu lehti-ilmoituksen välityksellä, ja sen käsittelyssä on ensisijaisena menetelmänä ollut temaattinen sisällön analyysi, jota on täydennetty määrällisen tutkimuksen keinoin. Tarkoitus on kuvailla kirjoitushetkellä eri-ikäisten aikuisten kokemuksia ja niille annettuja merkityksiä. Kirjoitetut tarinat (N = 32) liittyvät muun muassa sukulaissijoitukseen johtaneisiin taustoihin ja syihin, koettuihin tunteisiin sekä sukulaissuhteiden kehittymiseen. Tutkimuksessa on lisäksi pyritty kartoittamaan niitä tekijöitä, jotka ovat tekemisissä sen kanssa, millaiseksi sukulaissijoitus lopulta muotoutuu. Sukulaissijoitusten taustatekijöinä näkyivät muun muassa vanhempien avioerot, yksinhuoltajuus, erilaiset sairaudet ja kuolemat sekä hankalat työ- ja koulujärjestelyt, ja näiden perusteella luokittelin syytekijät sosiaalisiin, orpoudesta johtuviin ja käytännönjärjestelyllisiin syihin. Lapset ovat yleensä pieniä sukulaisperheeseen muuttaessaan, eivätkä he näy päätöksenteossa, joka tapahtuu tyypillisesti nopealla aikataululla. Aina sukulaisperheen jäsenet eivät ole entuudestaan tuttuja lapselle, ja heidän elintapansa voivat olla hyvin erilaiset verrattuna lapsen omaan perheeseen. Sijoitukset voivat kestää viikoista koko lapsuuden ajan kestäviin sijoituksiin, ja ne päättyvät joko takaisin kotiin paluuseen tai omilleen itsenäistymiseen. Valtaosalle sukulaissijoitus on ollut positiivinen kokemus, ja he puhuivat paljolti hyvän kohtelun merkityksestä, eivätkä esimerkiksi sijoituksen pysyvyydestä. Kun taas negatiivisesti sijoituksen kokenut vähemmistö kertoi huonosta, jopa epäinhimillisestä, kohtelusta. Osalle kokemus oli opettanut, että sukulaisiin voi aina turvautua ja vanhemmuuden roolimallin voi omaksua myös sukulaisiltaan, kun taas osa oli oppinut pärjäämään jo varhain omillaan joutuen kärsimään pitkin elämää erilaisista tunneelämän vaikeuksista. Puolet oli asunut aina samassa sukulaisperheessä, ja osalla oli kokemus useista sukulaisperheistä, yhdellä jopa kymmenestä. Vaikka muuttoja tapahtui, ne tapahtuivat suvun sisällä mahdollistaen sukulaissuhteiden jatkuvuuden. Tosin aina suhteet eivät jatkuneet ainakaan kaikkiin sukulaissijaisperheen jäseniin, tai joskus ne saattoivat katketa myöhemmin esimerkiksi perinnönjaon yhteydessä. Keskeiset lähteet: Beeman & Boisen (1999); Farmer (2010); Heino (2001); Koisti- Auer (2008).

Suvun sisällä sovittua. Sukulaissijoitukset aikuistuneiden lasten näkökulmasta

Kautta aikain sukulaiset ovat huolehtineet sukulaistensa äidittömistä tai isättömistä lapsista, ja usein näin on toimittu sukulaisten keskinäisillä sopimuksilla. Sukulaisperheessä asumista on nimitetty esimerkiksi yksityissijoitukseksi ja siellä asuvaa kasvattilapseksi. Suomessa lastensuojelun virallisen sijaishuoltojärjestelmän suhtautuminen sukulaisperheisiin on vaihdellut eri aikoina. Yleisesti nähdään, että 1980-luvun puoliväliin asti sukulaisperheitä käytettiin paljon suomalaisessa lastensuojelussa, mutta hoitotyön ammatillistamispyrkimysten ja yhteiskunnallisen rakennekehityksen myötä niiden käyttö väheni, ja alkoi systemaattinen vieraiden sijaisperheiden etsiminen ja valmentaminen. Nykyään ollaan uudelleen tilanteessa, jossa on alettu huomioida sukulaisia ja muita lapsen luonnollisia verkostoja. Nykykeskustelun taustalla on kiihtynyt lastensuojelutarpeen kasvusuunta, jota vastaamaan tarvitaan lisää resursseja, ja yksi mahdollinen vaihtoehto haasteellisessa tilanteessa on sukulaissijoitus eli sukulaisten toteuttama perhehoito. Tässä aineistolähtöisessä laadullisessa tutkimuksessa ollaan kiinnostuneita sellaisten henkilöiden kokemuksista, jotka ovat jossakin lapsuutensa vaiheessa asuneet sukulaistensa luona. Fenomenologishermeneuttisen tutkimusotteen ja väljästi sovelletun narratiivisen tutkimuksen empiirinen aineisto on hankittu lehti-ilmoituksen välityksellä, ja sen käsittelyssä on ensisijaisena menetelmänä ollut temaattinen sisällön analyysi, jota on täydennetty määrällisen tutkimuksen keinoin. Tarkoitus on kuvailla kirjoitushetkellä eri-ikäisten aikuisten kokemuksia ja niille annettuja merkityksiä. Kirjoitetut tarinat (N = 32) liittyvät muun muassa sukulaissijoitukseen johtaneisiin taustoihin ja syihin, koettuihin tunteisiin sekä sukulaissuhteiden kehittymiseen. Tutkimuksessa on lisäksi pyritty kartoittamaan niitä tekijöitä, jotka ovat tekemisissä sen kanssa, millaiseksi sukulaissijoitus lopulta muotoutuu. Sukulaissijoitusten taustatekijöinä näkyivät muun muassa vanhempien avioerot, yksinhuoltajuus,erilaiset sairaudet ja kuolemat sekä hankalat työ- ja koulujärjestelyt, ja näiden perusteella luokittelin syytekijät sosiaalisiin, orpoudesta johtuviin ja käytännönjärjestelyllisiin syihin. Lapset ovat yleensä pieniä sukulaisperheeseen muuttaessaan, eivätkä he näy päätöksenteossa, joka tapahtuu tyypillisesti nopealla aikataululla. Aina sukulaisperheen jäsenet eivät ole entuudestaan tuttuja lapselle, ja heidän elintapansa voivat olla hyvin erilaiset verrattuna lapsen omaan perheeseen. Sijoitukset voivat kestää viikoista koko lapsuuden ajan kestäviin sijoituksiin, ja ne päättyvät joko takaisin kotiin paluuseen tai omilleen itsenäistymiseen. Valtaosalle sukulaissijoitus on ollut positiivinen kokemus, ja he puhuivat paljolti hyvän kohtelun merkityksestä, eivätkä esimerkiksi sijoituksen pysyvyydestä. Kun taas negatiivisesti sijoituksen kokenut vähemmistö kertoi huonosta, jopa epäinhimillisestä, kohtelusta. Osalle kokemus oli opettanut, että sukulaisiin voi aina turvautua ja vanhemmuuden roolimallin voi omaksua myös sukulaisiltaan, kun taas osa oli oppinut pärjäämään jo varhain omillaan joutuen kärsimään pitkin elämää erilaisista tunneelämän vaikeuksista. Puolet oli asunut aina samassa sukulaisperheessä, ja osalla oli kokemus useista sukulaisperheistä, yhdellä jopa kymmenestä. Vaikka muuttoja tapahtui, ne tapahtuivat suvun sisällä mahdollistaen sukulaissuhteiden jatkuvuuden. Tosin aina suhteet eivät jatkuneet ainakaan kaikkiin sukulaissijaisperheen jäseniin, tai joskus ne saattoivat katketa myöhemmin esimerkiksi perinnönjaon yhteydessä. Keskeiset lähteet: Beeman & Boisen (1999); Farmer (2010); Heino (2001); Koisti- Auer (2008).

Non-industrial private forest landowners’ choices of timber management strategies and potential allowable cut.

In the study, the potential allowable cut in the district of Pohjois-Savo - based on the non-industrial private forest landowners' (NIPF) choices of timber management strategies - was clarified. Alternative timber management strategies were generated, and the choices and factors affecting the choices of timber management strategies by NIPF landowners were studied. The choices of timber management strategies were solved by maximizing the utility functions of the NIPF landowners. The parameters of the utility functions were estimated using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The level of the potential allowable cut was compared to the cutting budgets based on the 7th and 8th National Forest Inventories (NFI7 and NFI8), to the combining of private forestry plans, and to the realized drain from non-industrial private forests. The potential allowable cut was calculated using the same MELA system as has been used in the calculation of the national cutting budget. The data consisted of the NIPF holdings (from the TASO planning system) that had been inventoried compartmentwise and had forestry plans made during the years 1984-1992. The NIPF landowners' choices of timber management strategies were clarified by a two-phase mail inquiry. The most preferred strategy obtained was "sustainability" (chosen by 62 % of landowners). The second in order of preference was "finance" (17 %) and the third was "saving" (11 %). "No cuttings", and "maximum cuttings" were the least preferred (9 % and 1 %, resp.). The factors promoting the choices of strategies with intensive cuttings were a) "farmer as forest owner" and "owning fields", b) "increase in the size of the forest holding", c) agriculture and forestry orientation in production, d) "decreasing short term stumpage earning expectations", e) "increasing intensity of future cuttings", and f) "choice of forest taxation system based on site productivity". The potential allowable cut defined in the study was 20 % higher than the average of the realized drain during the years 1988-1993, which in turn, was at the same level as the cutting budget based on the combining of forestry plans in eastern Finland. Respectively, the potential allowable cut defined in the study was 12 % lower than the NFI8-based greatest sustained allowable cut for the 1990s. Using the method presented in this study, timber management strategies can be clarified for non-industrial private forest landowners in different parts of Finland. Based on the choices of timber managemet strategies, regular cutting budgets can be calculated more realistically than before.

Non-industrial private forest landowners’ choices of timber management strategies.

The factors affecting the non-industrial, private forest landowners' (hereafter referred to using the acronym NIPF) strategic decisions in management planning are studied. A genetic algorithm is used to induce a set of rules predicting potential cut of the landowners' choices of preferred timber management strategies. The rules are based on variables describing the characteristics of the landowners and their forest holdings. The predictive ability of a genetic algorithm is compared to linear regression analysis using identical data sets. The data are cross-validated seven times applying both genetic algorithm and regression analyses in order to examine the data-sensitivity and robustness of the generated models. The optimal rule set derived from genetic algorithm analyses included the following variables: mean initial volume, landowner's positive price expectations for the next eight years, landowner being classified as farmer, and preference for the recreational use of forest property. When tested with previously unseen test data, the optimal rule set resulted in a relative root mean square error of 0.40. In the regression analyses, the optimal regression equation consisted of the following variables: mean initial volume, proportion of forestry income, intention to cut extensively in future, and positive price expectations for the next two years. The R2 of the optimal regression equation was 0.34 and the relative root mean square error obtained from the test data was 0.38. In both models, mean initial volume and positive stumpage price expectations were entered as significant predictors of potential cut of preferred timber management strategy. When tested with the complete data set of 201 observations, both the optimal rule set and the optimal regression model achieved the same level of accuracy.

Finding space to mental health : promoting mental health in adolescents (12 to 14 year olds): preliminary results of the intervention's effectiveness

Resumen: La salud mental y el bienestar son fundamentales para nuestra capacidad colectiva y individual como seres humanos de pensar, de exteriorizar los sentimientos, de establecer y mantener relaciones, para estudiar, para perseguir las actividades de ocio, para tomar decisiones diarias y para disfrutar de una vida plena. Una adolescencia saludable es un prerrequisito para una vida adulta saludable. Sin embargo, la realidad actual presenta un panorama preocupante. La formación del capital mental individual y colectivo - especialmente en las primeras etapas de la vida - está siendo retenida por una serie de riesgos evitables para la salud mental (World Health Organization [WHO], 2013). Los adolescentes del sur de Europa (región que ha sido más severamente afectada por la crisis financiera; e.g., Portugal) son señalados como un grupo extremadamente vulnerable, ya que su salud mental fácilmente podría ser influenciada por las dificultades económicas de sus padres y la escasez de solidaridad social (European Parliament, 2012). La promoción de la salud mental de los adolescentes es considerada como una preocupación fundamental (WHO, 2005a, 2013). En este ámbito, las intervenciones centradas en la promoción de la literacía de la salud mental han revelado importantes ventajas en la prevención, reconocimiento, intervención precoz y la reducción del estigma (Pinfold, Stuart, Thornicroft & Arboleda-Florez, 2005; Pinfold, Toulmin, Thornicroft, Huxley, Farmer & Graham, 2003; Schulze, Richter-Werling, Matschinger & Angermeyer, 2003; Stuart, 2006). En consonancia con los marcos de promoción de la salud mentales propuestos por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (2005a), tenemos que involucrar a jóvenes en los ambientes donde interactúan (Burns, 2011). Las escuelas son implícitamente uno de los locales más importantes para la promoción de la salud mental de los adolescentes (Barry, Clarke, Jenkins & Patel, 2013; WHO, 2001). El proyecto “Abrir Espacio para la Salud Mental – Promoción de la salud mental en adolescentes (12-14 años)” tiene como objetivo incrementar literacía de la salud mental en los jóvenes. En el primer año se ha desarrollado un instrumento de evaluación - Mental Health Literacy questionnaire (MHLq) - y la intervención para la promoción de la salud mental. La intervención consiste en 2 sesiones, 90 minutos cada una, implementadas con intervalo de una semana. Siguen una metodología interactiva, utilizando dinámicas de grupo, videos, música y discusión. El estudio de la eficacia de la intervención se lleva a cabo mediante un análisis pre y pos-test con el MHLq, utilizando un grupo experimental y un grupo de control. Este artículo presenta los resultados preliminares de la eficacia de la intervención de promoción de la salud mental en una muestra de 100 adolescentes portugueses (12-14 años). El pos-test mostró un incremento de los niveles de conocimientos de salud mental y estrategias de autoayuda. Los resultados sugieren que la intervención desarrollada parece ser adecuada al objetivo propuesto y refuerzan la creencia de que intervenciones escolares, sistemáticas y sostenibles, para la promoción de la salud mental con jóvenes, es un enfoque prometedor para la promoción de la literacía de la salud mental (Schulze et al., 2003; Rickwood et al., 2005; Corrigan et al., 2007; WHO, 2010).

Switching Regimes in the Term Structure of Interest Rates During U.S. Post-War: A case for the Lucas proof equilibrium?

Published as an article in: Studies in Nonlinear Dynamics & Econometrics, 2004, vol. 8, issue 1, pages 5.