Radiative transfer, interception and scattering in coniferous forests : models and applications for production ecology and remote sensing

This work develops methods to account for shoot structure in models of coniferous canopy radiative transfer. Shoot structure, as it varies along the light gradient inside canopy, affects the efficiency of light interception per unit needle area, foliage biomass, or foliage nitrogen. The clumping of needles in the shoot volume also causes a notable amount of multiple scattering of light within coniferous shoots. The effect of shoot structure on light interception is treated in the context of canopy level photosynthesis and resource use models, and the phenomenon of within-shoot multiple scattering in the context of physical canopy reflectance models for remote sensing purposes. Light interception. A method for estimating the amount of PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation) intercepted by a conifer shoot is presented. The method combines modelling of the directional distribution of radiation above canopy, fish-eye photographs taken at shoot locations to measure canopy gap fraction, and geometrical measurements of shoot orientation and structure. Data on light availability, shoot and needle structure and nitrogen content has been collected from canopies of Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Shoot structure acclimated to light gradient inside canopy so that more shaded shoots have better light interception efficiency. Light interception efficiency of shoots varied about two-fold per needle area, about four-fold per needle dry mass, and about five-fold per nitrogen content. Comparison of fertilized and control stands of Norway spruce indicated that light interception efficiency is not greatly affected by fertilization. Light scattering. Structure of coniferous shoots gives rise to multiple scattering of light between the needles of the shoot. Using geometric models of shoots, multiple scattering was studied by photon tracing simulations. Based on simulation results, the dependence of the scattering coefficient of shoot from the scattering coefficient of needles is shown to follow a simple one-parameter model. The single parameter, termed the recollision probability, describes the level of clumping of the needles in the shoot, is wavelength independent, and can be connected to previously used clumping indices. By using the recollision probability to correct for the within-shoot multiple scattering, canopy radiative transfer models which have used leaves as basic elements can use shoots as basic elements, and thus be applied for coniferous forests. Preliminary testing of this approach seems to explain, at least partially, why coniferous forests appear darker than broadleaved forests in satellite data.

Kannustaminen ja moraali : Kannustamisen idea suomalaisessa yhteiskuntapolitiikassa 1990-luvulta alkaen

Even though the concept of incentive has become very popular in Finnish welfare politics since the economic crisis of the 1990s, the content of this concept is not clear. Fundamentally, it is a matter of controlling the behaviour of individuals to accord with the authorities' objectives and interests in gaining cooperative benefits. As early as in Plato's Republic, citizens were encouraged to use their abilities and skills in a way most beneficial to the society. Similarly, in today's welfare society citizens are urged to produce common goods and distribute welfare to enable a better life for all through cooperation. The fundamental question is to what extent society can shape individuals' preferences with incentives, and encourage them without external coercion to choose actions beneficial for both the society and the individuals themselves. The objective of the incentive institution is to gain cooperative benefits, but there are different views on how it should be implemented. For example, the incentive system in the Finnish welfare society includes several economic and social conceptions which adjust the distribution of welfare. From an economic perspective, the objective of the incentive system is economic efficiency, while from a social perspective it is the securing of social rights and citizens' equality. The market mechanism, for example, can at best lead to economically efficient activity, but it might sacrifice fairness and equality. In this research, the idea of activation policy expands to cover normative and social incentives, in addition to the economic factors affecting human choice and social actions. Desirable co-living and meaningful cooperation have some prerequisites. We need the expanded idea of activation to study them, and to maintain them in society. The themes discussed in all the ten chapters aim at evaluating the preconditions of a just society. This study provides tools to examine the changes in the welfare state, also from the viewpoint of normative ethics. This offers a morally and conceptually wider perspective than a normative viewpoint of economics alone. In terms of the values of our welfare society, it makes a difference how the relationship between the legalities of economics and citizens' well-being is understood. The research asks whether economic benefits to the society should be allowed to supersede the principles of human dignity Key words:incentives, activation policy, morality, social philosophy, social justice, policy paradigm

Empirical Analysis of Competition in Procurement Auctions

A vast amount of public services and goods are contracted through procurement auctions. Therefore it is very important to design these auctions in an optimal way. Typically, we are interested in two different objectives. The first objective is efficiency. Efficiency means that the contract is awarded to the bidder that values it the most, which in the procurement setting means the bidder that has the lowest cost of providing a service with a given quality. The second objective is to maximize public revenue. Maximizing public revenue means minimizing the costs of procurement. Both of these goals are important from the welfare point of view. In this thesis, I analyze field data from procurement auctions and show how empirical analysis can be used to help design the auctions to maximize public revenue. In particular, I concentrate on how competition, which means the number of bidders, should be taken into account in the design of auctions. In the first chapter, the main policy question is whether the auctioneer should spend resources to induce more competition. The information paradigm is essential in analyzing the effects of competition. We talk of a private values information paradigm when the bidders know their valuations exactly. In a common value information paradigm, the information about the value of the object is dispersed among the bidders. With private values more competition always increases the public revenue but with common values the effect of competition is uncertain. I study the effects of competition in the City of Helsinki bus transit market by conducting tests for common values. I also extend an existing test by allowing bidder asymmetry. The information paradigm seems to be that of common values. The bus companies that have garages close to the contracted routes are influenced more by the common value elements than those whose garages are further away. Therefore, attracting more bidders does not necessarily lower procurement costs, and thus the City should not implement costly policies to induce more competition. In the second chapter, I ask how the auctioneer can increase its revenue by changing contract characteristics like contract sizes and durations. I find that the City of Helsinki should shorten the contract duration in the bus transit auctions because that would decrease the importance of common value components and cheaply increase entry which now would have a more beneficial impact on the public revenue. Typically, cartels decrease the public revenue in a significant way. In the third chapter, I propose a new statistical method for detecting collusion and compare it with an existing test. I argue that my test is robust to unobserved heterogeneity unlike the existing test. I apply both methods to procurement auctions that contract snow removal in schools of Helsinki. According to these tests, the bidding behavior of two of the bidders seems consistent with a contract allocation scheme.

Role of Temperature in the Biological Activity of a Boreal Forest

In northern latitudes, temperature is the key factor driving the temporal scales of biological activity, namely the length of the growing season and the seasonal efficiency of photosynthesis. The formation of atmospheric concentrations of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are linked to the intensity of biological activity. However, interdisciplinary knowledge of the role of temperature in the biological processes related to the annual cycle and photosynthesis and atmospheric chemistry is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to improve understanding of the role of temperature in these three interlinked areas: 1) onset of growing season, 2) photosynthetic efficiency and 3) BVOC air concentrations in a boreal forest. The results present a cross-section of the role of temperature on different spatial (southern northern boreal), structural (tree forest stand - forest) and temporal (day-season- year) scales. The fundamental status of the Thermal Time model in predicting the onset of spring recovery was confirmed. However, it was recommended that sequential models would be more appropriate tools when the onset of the growing season is estimated under a warmer climate. A similar type of relationship between photosynthetic efficiency and temperature history was found in both southern and northern boreal forest stands. This result draws attention to the critical question of the seasonal efficiency of coniferous species to emit organic compounds under a warmer climate. New knowledge about the temperature dependence of the concentrations of biogenic volatile organic compounds in a boreal forest stand was obtained. The seasonal progress and the inter-correlation of BVOC concentrations in ambient air indicated a link to biological activity. Temperature was found to be the main driving factor for the concentrations. However, in addition to temperature, other factors may play a significant role here, especially when the peak concentrations are studied. There is strong evidence that the spring recovery and phenological events of many plant species have already advanced in Europe. This study does not fully support this observation. In a boreal forest, changes in the annual cycle, especially the temperature requirement in winter, would have an impact on the atmospheric BVOC composition. According to this study, more joint phenological and BVOC field observations and laboratory experiments are still needed to improve these scenarios.

A systematic-ecological approach to Baltic Sea ice studies of algae and protists

The seasonal occurrence of sea ice that annually covers almost half the Baltic Sea area provides a unique habitat for halo- and cold temperature-tolerant extremophiles. Baltic Sea ice biology has more than 100 years of tradition that began with the floristic observation of species by the early pioneers using light microscopic techniques that were the only thing available at the time. Since the discovery of life within sea ice, more technologies have become available for taxonomy. Electron microscopy and genetic evidence have been used to identify sea ice biota revealing increased numbers of taxa. Meanwhile ecologists have used light microscopic cell enumeration in addition to the chemical and physical properties of sea ice in attempts to explain the food web structure of sea ice and its functions. Thus, during the Baltic winter, the sea ice hosts more abundant and diverse microbial communities than the water column beneath it. These communities are typically dominated by autotrophic diatoms together with a diverse assortment of dinoflagellates, auto- and heterotrophic flagellates, ciliates, metazoan rotifers and bacteria, which are mostly responsible for the recycling of nutrients. This thesis comprises ecological and systematic studies. In addition to the results of the previous studies carried out on landfast ice, the data presented here provide new insight into the spatial distribution of pelagial sea ice, which has remained largely unexplored. The studies reveal spatial heterogeneity in the pelagial sea ice of the Gulf of Bothnia. There were mismatches in chlorophyll-a concentrations and in photosynthetic efficiencies of the communities studied. The temporal succession was followed and experimental studies performed investigating the community responses towards increased or decreased light in landfast ice in the Gulf of Finland. The systematic studies carried out with established dinoflagellate cultures revealed a new resting cyst belonging to common sea ice dinoflagellate, Scrippsiella hangoei (Schiller) Larsen 1995. The cyst can be used to explain the overwintering of this species during prolonged periods of darkness. The dissimilarities and similarities in the material isolated from the sea ice called for description of a new subspecies Heterocapsa arctica ssp. frigida. The cells obtained in the cultured material were unlike those of the previously described species, necessitating description of ssp. frigida. As a result of its own unique habitus, the subspecies had been noted by Finnish taxonomists during the past three decades and thus its annual occurrence and geographical distribution in the Baltic Sea. This illustrates how combining ecology and systematics increases our understanding of organisms.

Day Surgery in Finland : randomized and cross-sectional studies on treatment, quality, and outcome

The aims of this study were to describe Finnish day surgery practice at present and to evaluate quality of care by assessing postdischarge minor morbidity and quality indicators. Potential treatment options were approached by investigating the role of oral dexamethasone as a part of multimodal analgesia and the feasibility of day surgery in patients aged 65 years and older. Over a 2-month period, all patient cases at 14 Finnish day surgery or short-stay units were analyzed (Study I). Quality indicators included rates and reasons for overnight admission, readmission, reoperation, cancellations, and patient satisfaction. Recovery during the first postoperative week was assessed at two units (Study II). Altogether 2732 patients graded daily the intensity of predefined symptoms. To define risk factors of postdischarge symptoms, multinomial regression analysis was used. Sixty patients scheduled to undergo day surgery for hallux valgus were randomized to receive twice perioperatively dexamethasone 9 mg or placebo (Study III). Paracetamol 1 g was administered 3 times daily. Rescue medication (oxycodone) consumption during 0-3 postoperative days (POD), maximal pain scores and adverse effects were documented. Medically stable patients aged 65 years or older, scheduled for open inguinal hernia repair, were randomized to receive treatment either as day cases or inpatients (Study IV). Complications, unplanned admissions, healthcare visits, and patients’ acceptance of the type of care provided were assessed during 2 weeks postoperatively. In Study I, unplanned overnight admissions were reported in 5.9%, return hospital visits during PODs 1-28 in 3.7%, and readmissions in 0.7% of patients. Patient satisfaction was high. In Study II, pain was the most common symptom in adult patients (57%). Postdischarge symptoms were more frequent in adults aged < 40 years, children aged ≥ 7 years, females, and following a longer duration of surgery. In Study III, the total median (range) oxycodone consumption during the study period was 45 (0–165) mg in the dexamethasone group, compared with 78 (15–175) mg in the placebo group (P < 0.049). On PODs 0-1, patients in the dexamethasone group reported significantly lower pain scores. Following inguinal hernia repair, no significant differences in outcome measures were seen between the study groups. Patient satisfaction was equally high in day cases and inpatients (Study IV). Finnish day surgery units provide good-quality services. Minor postdischarge symptoms are common, and they are influenced by several patient-, surgery-, and anesthesia-related factors. Oral dexamethasone combined with paracetamol improves pain relief and reduces the need for oxycodone rescue medication following correction of hallux valgus. Day surgery for open inguinal hernia repair is safe and well accepted by patients aged 65 years or older and can be recommended as the primary choice of care for medically stable patients.

Transition to parenthood after assisted reproductive treatment: Follow-up study of singleton pregnancies

Infertility treatments are relatively easily available in most Western countries today, but the psychological consequences of these high-tech treatments have scarcely been addressed. The purpose of this controlled longitudinal study was to explore the early environment of the infant born by assisted reproductive treatment (ART). We focused on the parents mental well-being, marital relations and experience of parenting. In addition to this, we assessed parent child interaction and parents mental representations of their child after long-standing infertility and several unsuccessful ART attempts. The subjects were infertile couples who achieved a singleton pregnancy by in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). The control group comprised of spontaneously conceiving couples with singleton pregnancies. ART women showed fewer depressive symptoms than controls during pregnancy and after delivery, but the difference vanished by the end of the child s first year. ART men consistently had lower levels of anxiety symptoms, sleeping difficulties, and social dysfunction than control men. Control women experienced a decrease in dyadic consensus during the child s first year, which did not happen among ART women. After the child was born, ART men reported a higher level of sexual affection compared with control men. Psychic symptoms and stressful life events were differently related to marital relations in ART and control groups. The parenting experiences of ART mothers were in general at a higher level, compared with controls, and they changed in a positive direction during the child s first year. Fathering experiences were at the same level in both groups, and they changed positively in both groups by the end of the child s first year. The parenting experiences of ART mothers and fathers were more resilient to certain child-related stressors than those of control group. Both mothers and fathers with long-term infertility showed more sensitive behaviour with their child in toddler-age than in infancy. Correspondingly, children s cooperation increased. Mothers often mentioned a fear of miscarriage and difficulty in creating representations of the child during pregnancy. Descriptions of the infants were mainly rich, vivid and loaded with positive features. In conclusion, ART parents in general seem to adapt well to the transition to parenthood. Former infertility and ART do not seem to constitute a risk for parents mental health, marital relations or experience of parenting. Even longstanding infertility with several unsuccessful treatment attempts did not create a risk as regards parenting behaviour or parents mental representations of their child. In this group, however, women were found to have fear for losing the child and difficulty in creating representations of the child during pregnancy, which in some cases may indicate need for psychosocial support. Even though our results are encouraging, infertility and infertility treatments are generally considered as a stressful experience. It is a challenge for health authorities to recognize those couples who need professional help to overcome the distressing experiences of infertility and ART.

Canopy processes, fluxes and microclimate in a pine forest

Interaction between forests and the atmosphere occurs by radiative and turbulent transport. The fluxes of energy and mass between surface and the atmosphere directly influence the properties of the lower atmosphere and in longer time scales the global climate. Boreal forest ecosystems are central in the global climate system, and its responses to human activities, because they are significant sources and sinks of greenhouse gases and of aerosol particles. The aim of the present work was to improve our understanding on the existing interplay between biologically active canopy, microenvironment and turbulent flow and quantify. In specific, the aim was to quantify the contribution of different canopy layers to whole forest fluxes. For this purpose, long-term micrometeorological and ecological measurements made in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest at SMEAR II research station in Southern Finland were used. The properties of turbulent flow are strongly modified by the interaction between the canopy elements: momentum is efficiently absorbed in the upper layers of the canopy, mean wind speed and turbulence intensities decrease rapidly towards the forest floor and power spectra is modulated by spectral short-cut . In the relative open forest, diabatic stability above the canopy explained much of the changes in velocity statistics within the canopy except in strongly stable stratification. Large eddies, ranging from tens to hundred meters in size, were responsible for the major fraction of turbulent transport between a forest and the atmosphere. Because of this, the eddy-covariance (EC) method proved to be successful for measuring energy and mass exchange inside a forest canopy with exception of strongly stable conditions. Vertical variations of within canopy microclimate, light attenuation in particular, affect strongly the assimilation and transpiration rates. According to model simulations, assimilation rate decreases with height more rapidly than stomatal conductance (gs) and transpiration and, consequently, the vertical source-sink distributions for carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) diverge. Upscaling from a shoot scale to canopy scale was found to be sensitive to chosen stomatal control description. The upscaled canopy level CO2 fluxes can vary as much as 15 % and H2O fluxes 30 % even if the gs models are calibrated against same leaf-level dataset. A pine forest has distinct overstory and understory layers, which both contribute significantly to canopy scale fluxes. The forest floor vegetation and soil accounted between 18 and 25 % of evapotranspiration and between 10 and 20 % of sensible heat exchange. Forest floor was also an important deposition surface for aerosol particles; between 10 and 35 % of dry deposition of particles within size range 10 30 nm occurred there. Because of the northern latitudes, seasonal cycle of climatic factors strongly influence the surface fluxes. Besides the seasonal constraints, partitioning of available energy to sensible and latent heat depends, through stomatal control, on the physiological state of the vegetation. In spring, available energy is consumed mainly as sensible heat and latent heat flux peaked about two months later, in July August. On the other hand, annual evapotranspiration remains rather stable over range of environmental conditions and thus any increase of accumulated radiation affects primarily the sensible heat exchange. Finally, autumn temperature had strong effect on ecosystem respiration but its influence on photosynthetic CO2 uptake was restricted by low radiation levels. Therefore, the projected autumn warming in the coming decades will presumably reduce the positive effects of earlier spring recovery in terms of carbon uptake potential of boreal forests.

Supistamista, rationalisointia vai kehittämistä? : Valtiovarainministeriön järjestelyosaston järjestämän henkilöstökoulutus- ja tutkimustoiminnan rakentuminen osaksi valtionhallintoa vuosina 1943-1971

The study examines the personnel training and research activities carried out by the Organization and Methods Division of the Ministry of Finance and their becoming a part and parcel of the state administration in 1943-1971. The study is a combination of institutional and ideological historical research in recent history on adult education, using a constructionist approach. Material salient to the study comes from the files of the Organization and Methods Division in the National Archives, parliamentary documents, committee reports, and the magazines. The concentrated training and research activities arranged by the Organization and Methods Division, became a part and parcel of the state administration in the midst of controversial challenges and opportunities. They served to solve social problems which beset the state administration as well as contextual challenges besetting rationalization measures, and organizational challenges. The activities were also affected by a dependence on decision-makers, administrative units, and civil servants organizations, by different views on rationalization and the holistic nature of reforms, as well as by the formal theories that served as resources. It chose long-term projects which extended to the political decision-makers and administrative units turf, and which were intended to reform the structures of the state administration and to rationalize the practices of the administrative units. The crucial questions emerged in opposite pairs (a constitutional state vs. the ideology of an administratively governed state, a system of national boards vs. a system of government through ministries, efficiency of work vs. pleasantness of work, centralized vs. decentralized rationalization activities) which were not solvable problems but impossible questions with no ultimate answers. The aim and intent of the rationalization of the state administration (the reform of the central, provincial, and local governments) was to facilitate integrated management and to render a greater amount of work by approaching management procedures scientifically and by clarifying administrative instances and their respon-sibilities in regards to each other. The means resorted to were organizational studies and committee work. In the rationalization of office work and finance control, the idea was to effect savings in administrative costs and to pare down those costs as well as to rationalize and heighten those functions by developing the institution of work study practitioners in order to coordinate employer and employee relationships and benefits (the training of work study practitioners, work study, and a two-tier work study practitioner organization). A major part of the training meant teaching and implementing leadership skills in practice, which, in turn, meant that the learning environment was the genuine work community and efforts to change it. In office rationalization, the solution to regulate the relations between the employer and the employees was the co-existence of the technical and biological rationalization and the human resource administration and the accounting and planning systems at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s. The former were based on the school of scientific management and human relations, the latter on system thinking, which was a combination of the former two. In the rationalization of the state administration, efforts were made to find solutions to stabilize management ideologies and to arrange the relationships of administrative systems in administrative science - among other things, in the Hoover Committee and the Simon decision making theory, and, in the 1960s, in system thinking. Despite the development-related vocabulary, the practical work was advanced rationalization. It was said that the practical activities of both the state administration and the administrative units depended on professional managers who saw to production results and human relations. The pedagogic experts hired to develop training came up with a training system, based on the training-technological model where the training was made a function of its own. The State Training Center was established and the training office of the Organization and Methods Division became the leader and coordinator of personnel training.

Kuntayhtymä Kaksineuvoisen palvelutuotannon kustannustehokkuus ja toimivuus

Tutkimuksessa analysoidaan Kuntayhtymä Kaksineuvoisen perusterveydenhuollon kustannustehokkuuden kehitystä vuosina 2007–2009. Sosiaali- ja vanhuspalvelujen osalta kustannustehokkuutta tarkastellaan kuntien oman palvelutuotannon kustannusten avulla vuosina 2007–2008 sekä kuntayhtymän palvelutuotannon kustannusten avulla vuosina 2009–2010. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa arvioidaan kuntayhtymän hallintomallin toimivuutta. Tulosten mukaan sairaankuljetuksen, kotisairaanhoidon, avohoidon kuntoutuksen ja kuntoutusosaston kustannustehokkuus/suhteellinen tehokkuus parani tai pysyi pääosin samalla tasolla vuosina 2007–2009. Lasten perhepäivähoidon sekä perhe- ja laitoshoidon kustannustehokkuus oli paranemassa verrattaessa vuosien 2007–2008 ja vuosien 2009–2010 välistä kehitystä. Sairaalahoidon, työterveyshuollon, terveysneuvonnan, avosairaanhoidon, hammashuollon ja ravintohuollon kustannustehokkuus/suhteellinen heikkeni vuosina 2007–2009. Lasten päiväkotihoidon ja vanhusten laitoshoidon kustannustehokkuus heikkeni verrattaessa vuosien 2007–2008 ja vuosien 2009–2010 välistä kehitystä. Myös vanhusten kotipalvelujen ja palveluasumisen kustannustehokkuus heikkenisi jossain määrin vastaavana jaksona. Lisäksi vammaisten ja mielenterveyskuntoutujien kustannustehokkuus oli heikkenemässä vuosina 2009–2010. Kun tarkasteltiin jäsenkuntien terveyspalvelujen kustannuseroa Etelä-Pohjanmaan keskiarvoon, havaittiin, että sekä perusterveydenhuollon, hammashuollon että ympäristöterveydenhuollon kustannukset olivat vuonna 2006 korkeammat kuin Etelä-Pohjanmaalla keskimäärin. Perus- ja ympäristöterveydenhuollon kustannukset laskivat vuonna 2007 alle Etelä-Pohjanmaan keskiarvon, mutta olivat sitä korkeammat hammashuollossa. Kaikissa toiminnoissa kustannukset ylittivät vuonna 2008 selvästi Etelä-Pohjanmaan keskiarvon. Kun tarkasteltiin kuntayhtymän terveyspalvelujen kustannusten kehitystä kuntayhtymän jäsenkuntien verotulojen kehitykseen, havaittiin, että kustannusten nousu oli vuosina 2007–2009 noin 1,3–1,8 kertaa suurempi kuin kuntien verotulojen suhteellinen keskimääräinen kasvu. Vuonna 2010 terveyspalvelujen kustannusten arvioidaan kasvavan, vaikka kuntien verotulot näyttäisivät vähenevän. Kun vertailukohteena oli Kauhavan kaupungin verotulojen kehitys, tulos oli vuosina 2007–2009 edellistä vastaava. Vuonna 2010 Kauhavan verotuloennuste on heikompi kuin jäsenkunnissa keskimäärin, jolloin ero näyttäisi olevan edellistä selvästi suurempi. Tulosten perusteella kustannussäästöjä olisi pyrittävä saamaan aikaan ensi sijassa avosairaanhoidon, terveysneuvonnan, työterveyshuollon, sairaalahoidon, hammashuollon, lasten päiväkotihoidon, vanhusten kotipalvelujen, laitoshoidon, palveluasumisen sekä ravintohuollon ja muiden tukipalvelujen järjestämiseen. Käytännössä kehittämistoimenpiteet olisi ulotettava koko palvelurakenteeseen. Tarvittavien toimenpiteiden suunnittelu ja toteuttaminen on kuntayhtymän tehtävä. Ehdotetut toimenpidekokonaisuudet olivat seuraavat: 1. Yhtenäistämällä ja tiivistämällä koko perusturvan palvelurakenne: ydinpalvelut, muut palvelut, tukipalvelut, 2. selvittämällä palvelujen tuottajavaihtoehdot ja pyrkimällä löytämään uusia tuotantotapoja, 3. laajentamalla merkittävästi yhteistyötä kuntien/muiden tuottajien kanssa tukipalveluissa: * uudelleenorganisoimalla ravintohuolto jokaisen terveysaseman alueella * integroimalla keskeiset taloushallintopalvelut muiden tuottajien kanssa 4. ottamalla käyttöön uudet tietotekniikan sovellukset, 5. siirtymällä yksikkökustannusbudjetointiin. Tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin vielä kuntayhtymän hallintomallin toimivuutta kuntayhtymän perussopimuksen ja muiden säännösten näkökulmasta. Tarkastelun perusteella todettiin, että kuntayhtymän hallintomalli turvaa vahvan omistajaohjauksen jäsenkunnille ja erityisesti Kauhavan kaupungille. Se perustuu seuraaviin tekijöihin: 1) Perussopimuksen mukaan päätösvalta kaikissa kuntalainsäädännön mukaan valtuustolle kuuluvissa asioissa on jäsenkuntien valtuustoilla, jotka suoraan voivat päättää keskeisistä kuntayhtymän toiminnan ja talouden asioista. 2) Perussopimuksen mukaan kuntayhtymän talouden mitoituksen lähtökohtana ovat kuntien rahoitussopimukset. Kuntakohtaisten rahoitussopimusten yhteenlasketusta määrästä muodostuu kuntayh-tymän talousarvioon kuntien maksuosuuksien kokonaismäärä. Tämä tarkoittaa, että kuntayhtymän talousarvio tulee tasapainottaa jäsenkuntien hyväksymään rahoitustasoon. 3) Perussopimus takaa omistajakunnille osallistumisen talousarvion ja taloussuunnitelman valmiste-luun, sillä näiden valmistelun yhteydessä kuntayhtymän tulee käydä jäsenkuntien kanssa neuvottelut perusturvan järjestämisestä ja rahoitussopimuksista. 4) Kauhavan kaupunki voi ehdottoman enemmistön turvin käyttää tarvittaessa yksin yhtymähallituksen päätösvaltaa. Käytännössä omistajaohjaus ei välttämättä toimi omistajakuntia ja erityisesti pääomistajaa tyydyttävällä tavalla. Tällöin syyt ovat pikemminkin muualla kuin itse hallintojärjestelmässä. Omistajaohjauksen tavoitteiden toteuttamiseksi tarvitaan aitoa käytännön yhteistyötä kuntayhtymän omistajatahon ja kuntayhtymän välillä. Omistajakuntien ja kuntayhtymän välillä tarvitaan vahva ja avoin yhteisymmärrys palvelutuotannon kustannusten reunaehdoista. Tämä koskee myös omistajakuntien kunnallishallitusten ja kuntien yhtymähallitusjäsenten välistä vuorovaikutusta.

The link between foreign aid, public investment and economic growth

Länsimaat ovat rahoittaneet kehitysyhteistyöhankkeita jo lähes kuuden vuosikymmenen ajan, mutta kehitysavun tehokkuudesta ei olla edelleenkään päästy yksimielisyyteen. Yksi avunantajamaiden tapa vaikuttaa kehitysavun tehokkuuteen, eli avun vaikutukseen vastaanottajamaan taloudellisen kasvun kiihdyttäjänä, on sitoa ne julkisen sektorin infrastruktuurihankkeisiin. Joissain tapauksissa tämä vaikuttaa avun vastaanottajan käytökseen ja asenteisiin kehitysapua kohtaan. Tutkielmassa käsitellään kehitysavun tehokkuutta tilanteessa, jossa se on sidottu julkisen sektorin investointeihin kehitysmaassa. Tutkimus pohjaa Kalaitzidakisin ja Kalyvitisin (2008) malliin, jossa osa kehitysmaan julkisen talouden investoinneista rahoitetaan kehitysavulla. Seuraavaksi tarkastellaan ylijäämää tavoittelevan käyttäytymisen (rent- seeking) vaikutusta kehitysavun tehokkuuteen pohjaten Economidesin, Kalyvitisin ja Philippopoulosin (2008) malliin. Tutkielmassa referoidaan lisäksi tutkimuskysymystä sivuavia empiirisiä tutkimuksia, esitellään aluksi tavallisimmat kehitysyhteistyön muodot, sekä esitellään talousteoreettisia näkökulmia kehitysyhteistyön tehokkuuden määrittelylle. Tutkielma perustuu puhtaasti teoreettisiin malleihin ja niissä sovelletut menetelmät ovat matemaattisia. Tutkielmassa käsitellään ensin tapaus, jossa kehitysyhteistyöllä rahoitetaan julkisen sektorin investointihankkeita. Jossain tapauksissa kehitysavun kasvu lasku siirtää vastaanottajamaan kulutusta julkisista investoinneista kulutukseen, jolloin kehitysyhteistyövaroin osittain rahoitettujen hankkeiden koko pienenee, ja suhteellinen tehokkuus laskee. Seuraavaksi tarkastellaan tilannetta, jossa kehitysyhteistyövaroista vain osa päätyy hankkeen rahoittamiseen, ja todetaan, että kehitysavun tehokkuus ja vaikutus maan kansantulon kasvuun vähenee talouden toimijoiden ylijäämää tavoittelevan käyttäytymisen (mukaan lukien korruptio) myötä entisestään. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan todeta, että kehitysapu vaikuttaa kehittyvän maan talouden kasvuun tapauksessa, jossa julkisia infrastruktuurihankkeita rahoitetaan osittain maan omin verovaroin ja osittain kehitysyhteistyövaroin. Ylijäämää tavoitteleva käyttäytyminen vaikuttaa kehitysavun tehokkuuteen negatiivistesti vähentäen kehitysavun positiivisia kasvuvaikutuksia.

Porsastuotannon tuottavuuskehitys sikatilinpäätöstiloilla vuosina 2003–2008

Tutkimuksessa mitataan porsastuotannon tuottavuuden kehitystä ProAgrian sikatilinpäätöstiloilla vuosina 2003–2008. Tuottavuutta mitataan Fisher-tuottavuusindeksillä, joka dekomponoidaan tekniseen, allokatiiviseen ja skaalatehokkuuteen sekä teknologiseen kehitykseen ja hintavaikutukseen. Koko aineistosta aggregoidulla tuottavuusindeksillä mitattuna tuottavuus kasvoi viidessä vuodessa yhteensä 14,3 % vuotuisen kasvun ollessa 2,7 %. Tuottajien keskimääräinen tuottavuusindeksi antaa lähes saman tuloksen: sen mukaan tuottavuus kasvaa yhteensä 14,7 %, mikä tekee 2,8 % vuodessa. Skaalatehokkuuden paraneminen havaitaan merkittävimmäksi tuottavuuskasvun lähteeksi. Skaalatehokkuus paranee aggregoidusti mitattuna 1,6 % vuodessa ja tiloilla keskimäärin 2,1 % vuodessa. Teknisen tehokkuuden koheneminen on toinen tuottavuuskasvua edistävä tekijä tutkimusjaksolla. Molemmilla mittaustavoilla nousu on keskimäärin 1,4 % vuodessa. Allokatiivinen tehokkuus laskee hieman: aggregoidusti mitattuna 0,1 % ja keskimäärin 0,4 % vuodessa. Teknologinen kehitys tutkimusjaksolla on lievästi negatiivista, keskimäärin -0,1 % vuodessa. Vuosittaiset vaihtelut ovat kuitenkin voimakkaita. Hintojen muutokset eivät juuri ole vaikuttaneet tuottavuuden tasoon, sillä hintavaikutuksen vuotuiset muutokset jäävät jokaisena vuonna alle puoleen prosenttiin ja keskimääräinen vuotuinen muutos on -0,1 %. Keskeinen tuottavuuskasvua edistänyt tekijä näyttää olleen tilakoon kasvu, joka on parantanut rakenteellista tehokkuutta. Teknologisen kehityksen jääminen negatiiviseksi kuitenkin tarkoittaa, että paras havaittu tuottavuuden taso ei ole noussut lainkaan.

Yksityinen turvallisuus vai julkinen turvattomuus? Turvallisuuden yksityistämisen vaikutus turvallisuussektorin uudistukseen konfliktin jälkeisessä tilanteessa

Tarkastelen pro gradu -tutkielmassani turvallisuuden yksityistämisen vaikutuksia turvallisuussektorin uudistukseen konfliktin jälkeisessä tilanteessa. Turvallisuuden yksityistäminen on ilmiö, joka on saanut yhä enemmän huomiota kansainvälisen politiikan tutkimuksessa, ja se liitetään usein myös turvallisuussektorin uudistusta käsitteleviin tutkimuksiin. Yleensä turvallisuuden yksityistäminen nähdään uudistuksen kohteena tilanteessa, jossa yksityiset sotilas- ja turvallisuuspalvelut pyritään saamaan uudistuksen kautta valvonnan ja sääntelyn piiriin. Liberiassa yksityiset sotilas- ja turvallisuuspalvelut ovat kuitenkin olleet turvallisuussektorin uudistuksen toteuttajia, kun Yhdysvallat ulkoisti oman osuutensa Liberian turvallisuussektorin uudistuksesta yksityiselle sektorille. Tutkielman ensimmäinen tutkimustehtävä jakautuu kahteen tutkimuskysymykseen: 1. Miten turvallisuuden yksityistäminen vaikuttaa turvallisuussektorin uudistuksen pääperiaatteisiin eli kokonaisvaltaisuuteen, paikalliseen omistajuuteen ja paikallisen kontekstin huomioimiseen? 2. Mitkä aikaisemmissa tutkimuksissa esitetyistä hypoteeseista turvallisuuden yksityistämisen eduista ja ongelmista saavat tukea Liberian tapauksessa? Lähestyn ensimmäistä tutkimustehtävää Liberian ja Sierra Leonen turvallisuussektorin uudistusten tapaustutkimuksilla, joiden aineistoina ovat uudistuksia käsittelevät aikaisemmat tutkimukset ja raportit. Vertaan Liberian tapausta Sierra Leonen tapaukseen, koska jälkimmäistä pidetään esimerkkinä onnistuneesta turvallisuussektorin uudistuksesta konfliktin jälkeisessä tilanteessa ja monet tapausten taustamuuttujista ovat samoja. Tällöin erojen voidaan olettaa johtuvan turvallisuuden yksityistämisestä. Tutkielman toinen tutkimustehtävä on Liberian ja Sierra Leonen turvallisuussektorin uudistusten tehokkuus- ja valvontaosa-alueiden kehityksen vertailu. Tähän tarkoitukseen kokosin oleellisista indikaattoreista ja indekseistä valtiokeskeisen turvallisuuden, inhimillisen turvallisuuden ja turvallisuuden hallinnan mittarit, jotka kuvaavat Liberian ja Sierra Leonen tilannetta vuosien 2003 ja 2008 välillä. Tapaustutkimuksista käy ilmi, että turvallisuussektorin uudistuksen pääperiaatteista erityisesti paikallisen kontekstin huomioimisessa oli Liberian tapauksessa puutteita. Uudistuksen ohjenuorana käytetty suunnitelma perustui enemmän taloudellisille laskemille kuin paikallisten tai alueellisten uhkien arvioinnille, ja lisäksi voidaan kyseenalaistaa yksityisten sotilas- ja turvallisuuspalveluiden käyttö uudistuksen toteuttajina alueella, joka on aikaisemmin kärsinyt palkkasotilaiden toiminnasta. Paikallisen omistajuuden suhteen ongelmat olivat Liberiassa ja Sierra Leonessa samoja. Liberian uudistuksen kokonaisvaltaisuuden ongelmat eivät liittyneet varsinaisesti yritysten käyttöön, vaan uudistuksen pilkkomiseen useiden eri toimijoiden välillä. Yksityistämisen perusteluna käytetty joustavuusargumentti saa tukea, mutta edullisuusargumentti horjuu, ja yksityisen sektorin käytön uutena etuna esiin nousi poliittisesti arkojen kysymysten, kuten vanhan armeijan demobilisoinnin, helpottuminen. Turvallisuuden yksityistämisen mahdollisista ongelmista turvallisuussektorin uudistuksessa nousee aineistosta selvimmin esiin päämies–agentti-ongelma, koska yrityksillä oli koko uudistusprosessin ajan enemmän tietoa kuin rahoittajavaltiolla ja kohdevaltiolla ja sitä kautta parempi neuvotteluasema. Turvallisuussektorin uudistuksen mittareilla Liberian ja Sierra Leonen kehitys näyttäytyy hyvin samanlaisena. Turvallisuuden yksityistämistä ei voida suoraan tulkita huonommaksi vaihtoehdoksi, jos Sierra Leonea pidetään esimerkkinä onnistuneesta uudistuksesta. Jatkotutkimuksen kannalta mielenkiintoinen havainto on Sierra Leonen kehityksen pysähtyminen tai jopa taantuminen vuoden 2004 jälkeen kaikilla tässä tutkielmassa käytetyillä mittareilla.

PERFECT Stroke : PERFormance, Effectiveness, and Costs of treatment episodes in Stroke

Stroke is a major cause of death and disability, incurs significant costs to healthcare systems, and inflicts severe burden to the whole society. Stroke care in Finland has been described in several population-based studies between 1967 and 1998, but not since. In the PERFECT Stroke study presented here, a system for monitoring the Performance, Effectiveness, and Costs of Treatment episodes in Stroke was developed in Finland. Existing nationwide administrative registries were linked at individual patient level with personal identification numbers to depict whole episodes of care, from acute stroke, through rehabilitation, until the patients went home, were admitted to permanent institutional care, or died. For comparisons in time and between providers, patient case-mix was adjusted for. The PERFECT Stroke database includes 104 899 first-ever stroke patients over the years 1999 to 2008, of whom 79% had ischemic stroke (IS), 14% intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and 7% subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). A 18% decrease in the age and sex adjusted incidence of stroke was observed over the study period, 1.8% improvement annually. All-cause 1-year case-fatality rate improved from 28.6% to 24.6%, or 0.5% annually. The expected median lifetime after stroke increased by 2 years for IS patients, to 7 years and 7 months, and by 1 year for ICH patients, to 4 years 5 months. No change could be seen in median SAH patient survival, >10 years. Stroke prevalence was 82 000, 1.5% of total population of Finland, in 2008. Modern stroke center care was shown to be associated with a decrease in both death and risk of institutional care of stroke patients. Number needed to treat to prevent these poor outcomes at one year from stroke was 32 (95% confidence intervals 26 to 42). Despite improvements over the study period, more than a third of Finnish stroke patients did not have access to stroke center care. The mean first-year healthcare cost of a stroke patient was ~20 000 , and among survivors ~10 000 annually thereafter. Only part of this cost was incurred by stroke, as the same patients cost ~5000 over the year prior to stroke. Total lifetime costs after first-ever stroke were ~85 000 . A total of 1.1 Billion , 7% of all healthcare expenditure, is used in the treatment of stroke patients annually. Despite a rapidly aging population, the number of new stroke patients is decreasing, and the patients are more likely to survive. This is explained in part by stroke center care, which is effective, and should be made available for all stroke patients. It is possible, in a suitable setting with high-quality administrative registries and a common identifier, to avoid the huge workload and associated costs of setting up a conventional stroke registry, and still acquire a fairly comprehensive dataset on stroke care and outcome.

Thunderstorm climatology and lightning location applications in northern Europe

Thunderstorm is a dangerous electrical phenomena in the atmosphere. Thundercloud is formed when thermal energy is transported rapidly upwards in convective updraughts. Electrification occurs in the collisions of cloud particles in the strong updraught. When the amount of charge in the cloud is large enough, electrical breakdown, better known as a flash, occurs. Lightning location is nowadays an essential tool for the detection of severe weather. Located flashes indicate in real time the movement of hazardous areas and the intensity of lightning activity. Also, an estimate for the flash peak current can be determined. The observations can be used in damage surveys. The most simple way to represent lightning data is to plot the locations on a map, but the data can be processed in more complex end-products and exploited in data fusion. Lightning data serves as an important tool also in the research of lightning-related phenomena, such as Transient Luminous Events. Most of the global thunderstorms occur in areas with plenty of heat, moisture and tropospheric instability, for example in the tropical land areas. In higher latitudes like in Finland, the thunderstorm season is practically restricted to the summer season. Particular feature of the high-latitude climatology is the large annual variation, which regards also thunderstorms. Knowing the performance of any measuring device is important because it affects the accuracy of the end-products. In lightning location systems, the detection efficiency means the ratio between located and actually occurred flashes. Because in practice it is impossible to know the true number of actually occurred flashes, the detection efficiency has to be esimated with theoretical methods.