Community based ecotourism as a panacea for protected areas: the use of common property theory in its analysis and development

Tourism is the worlds largest employer, accounting for 10% of jobs worldwide (WTO, 1999). There are over 30,000 protected areas around the world, covering about 10% of the land surface(IUCN, 2002). Protected area management is moving towards a more integrated form of management, which recognises the social and economic needs of the worlds finest areas and seeks to provide long term income streams and support social cohesion through active but sustainable use of resources. Ecotourism - 'responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well- being of local people' (The Ecotourism Society, 1991) - is often cited as a panacea for incorporating the principles of sustainable development in protected area management. However, few examples exist worldwide to substantiate this claim. In reality, ecotourism struggles to provide social and economic empowerment locally and fails to secure proper protection of the local and global environment. Current analysis of ecotourism provides a useful checklist of interconnected principles for more successful initiatives, but no overall framework of analysis or theory. This paper argues that applying common property theory to the application of ecotourism can help to establish more rigorous, multi-layered analysis that identifies the institutional demands of community based ecotourism (CBE). The paper draws on existing literature on ecotourism and several new case studies from developed and developing countries around the world. It focuses on the governance of CBE initiatives, particularly the interaction between local stakeholders and government and the role that third party non-governmental organisations can play in brokering appropriate institutional arrangements. The paper concludes by offering future research directions."

Research methodologies for planning ecotourism and nature conservation

Ecotourism is an important niche market in the world tourism industry. It is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to mass tourism. The emergence of ecotourism was facilitated by the environmental damage associated with mass tourism. Ecotourism is defined in many ways and there is no consensus as to its exact meaning. However, a number of salient elements, such as environmental conservation, maintenance of biodiversity, a satisfying experience for the visitors, study and appreciation of nature and sustainable community development, are included in many definitions. Tourism creates negative environmental externalities in the form of environmental damage. Such adverse effects can have serious implications for the tourism industry because they damage the very natural resource that forms the raw material for ecotourism. Ecotourism ventures should thus be properly planned and implemented and carefully monitored. Proper planning of ecotourism is hampered by the paucity of relevant qualitative and quantitative information. The use of analytical tools such as the Contingent Valuation Method, carrying capacity, decision analysis techniques with which multiobjective and uncertain consequences can be analysed, and other management strategies, such as the Safe Minimum Standard, can be useful in enabling better planning of ecotourism. Ecotourism can thus enhance the opportunities for better management of natural resources while providing a satisfying experience for the visitor.

A framework for sustainable ecotourism : application to Costa Rica

Costa Rica is a small Central American nation that has gained an international reputation as a leader in environmental conservation. This has formed the base for its highly successful and lucrative small-scale ecotourism industry. However, there are threats from high rates of deforestation and expanding large-scale tourism that is trading on strong environmental credentials, so it is appropriate to conduct this policy analysis on such a significant ecotourism area. The paper develops an ecologically sustainable economic framework, drawing on the works of Adolph Lowe (1893-1995) and Michalstrok Kalecki (1899-1970), to examine the Costa Rican experience and then analyse lessons for general policy development of any ecotourism area. The analysis is conducted from a political economy (and not a tourism management) perspective on the trade-offs between small-scale and large-scale ecotourism.

Ecotourism in Costa Rica: an economic framework of analysis

Costa Rica is a small Central American nation that has gained an international reputation as a leader in environmental conservation. This has formed the base for its highly successful and lucrative small-scale ecotourism industry. However, there are threats from high rates of deforestation and expanding large scale tourism that is trading on strong environmental credentials. This paper sets out an ecologically sustainable economic framework to firstly examine the Costa Rican experience, and then analyse lessons for general policy development of any ecotourism industry. The analysis is conducted from a political economy perspective on the trade-offs between small-scale and large-scale tourism.

An exploration of motives for attending Australian ecotourism locations and their influence on future intentions

This paper sought to explore the push [internal] motivations of eco-tourists and the influence of these motivational drives on their future ecotourism intentions. Findings from this exploratory study identified five key internal motivations, namely, 'self-esteem', 'relaxation', 'social interaction', 'self-fulfilment' and 'thrill and excitement'. Further analysis identified that 'self-esteem', elaxation' and 'self-fulfilment' motives were significantly related to ecotourist's intention to volunteer as well as their intention to donate money to an eco-tourism destination. Additionally, 'self-fulfilment' and 'thrill and excitement' motives were identified as impacting upon eco-tourists’ future attendance intentions. Consequently, findings from this research provide eco-tourism operators with insight into eco-tourist motivations to inform product and brand development and promotional activities and assist in the ongoing development effective eco-tourist retention strategies.

Behavioural responses of Australian fur seals to boat-based ecotourism

This study examined Australian fur seal behavioural responses to boat approaches at breeding colonies in Bass Straight. Results indicated that responses varied based on previous exposure to boats, approach distance, and time of day, and provided valuable information to management agencies regarding the effective management of ecotourism.