Blocking brain-derived neurotrophic factor inhibits injury-induced hyperexcitability of hippocampal CA3 neurons

Brain trauma can disrupt synaptic connections, and this in turn can prompt axons to sprout and form new connections. If these new axonal connections are aberrant, hyperexcitability can result. It has been shown that ablating tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB), a receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), can reduce axonal sprouting after hippocampal injury. However, it is unknown whether inhibiting BDNF-mediated axonal sprouting will reduce hyperexcitability. Given this, our purpose here was to determine whether pharmacologically blocking BDNF inhibits hyperexcitability after injury-induced axonal sprouting in the hippocampus. To induce injury, we made Schaffer collateral lesions in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. As reported by others, we observed a 50% reduction in axonal sprouting in cultures treated with a BDNF blocker (TrkB-Fc) 14 days after injury. Furthermore, lesioned cultures treated with TrkB-Fc were less hyperexcitable than lesioned untreated cultures. Using electrophysiology, we observed a two-fold decrease in the number of CA3 neurons that showed bursting responses after lesion with TrkB-Fc treatment, whereas we found no change in intrinsic neuronal firing properties. Finally, evoked field excitatory postsynaptic potential recordings indicated an increase in network activity within area CA3 after lesion, which was prevented with chronic TrkB-Fc treatment. Taken together, our results demonstrate that blocking BDNF attenuates injury-induced hyperexcitability of hippocampal CA3 neurons. Axonal sprouting has been found in patients with post-traumatic epilepsy. Therefore, our data suggest that blocking the BDNF-TrkB signaling cascade shortly after injury may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of post-traumatic epilepsy.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor protects against multiple forms of brain injury in bacterial meningitis

BACKGROUND Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) blocks activation of caspase-3, reduces translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), attenuates excitotoxicity of glutamate, and increases antioxidant enzyme activities. The mechanisms of neuroprotection suggest that BDNF may be beneficial in bacterial meningitis. METHODS To assess a potentially beneficial effect of adjuvant treatment with BDNF in bacterial meningitis, 11-day-old infant rats with experimental meningitis due to Streptococcus pneumoniae or group B streptococci (GBS) were randomly assigned to receive intracisternal injections with either BDNF (3 mg/kg) or equal volumes (10 mu L) of saline. Twenty-two hours after infection, brains were analyzed, by histomorphometrical examination, for the extent of cortical and hippocampal neuronal injury. RESULTS Compared with treatment with saline, treatment with BDNF significantly reduced the extent of 3 distinct forms of brain cell injury in this disease model: cortical necrosis in meningitis due to GBS (median, 0.0% [range, 0.0%-33.7%] vs. 21.3% [range, 0.0%-55.3%]; P<.03), caspase-3-dependent cell death in meningitis due to S. pneumoniae (median score, 0.33 [range, 0.0-1.0] vs. 1.10 [0.10-1.56]; P<.05), and caspase-3-independent hippocampal cell death in meningitis due to GBS (median score, 0 [range, 0-2] vs. 0.88 [range, 0-3.25]; P<.02). The last form of injury was associated with nuclear translocation of AIF. CONCLUSION BDNF efficiently reduces multiple forms of neuronal injury in bacterial meningitis and may hold promise as adjunctive therapy for this disease.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor-deficient mice develop aggressiveness and hyperphagia in conjunction with brain serotonergic abnormalities

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has trophic effects on serotonergic (5-HT) neurons in the central nervous system. However, the role of endogenous BDNF in the development and function of these neurons has not been established in vivo because of the early postnatal lethality of BDNF null mice. In the present study, we use heterozygous BDNF+/− mice that have a normal life span and show that these animals develop enhanced intermale aggressiveness and hyperphagia accompanied by significant weight gain in early adulthood; these behavioral abnormalities are known to correlate with 5-HT dysfunction. Forebrain 5-HT levels and fiber density in BDNF+/− mice are normal at an early age but undergo premature age-associated decrements. However, young adult BDNF+/− mice show a blunted c-fos induction by the specific serotonin releaser-uptake inhibitor dexfenfluramine and alterations in the expression of several 5-HT receptors in the cortex, hippocampus, and hypothalamus. The heightened aggressiveness can be ameliorated by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine. Our results indicate that endogenous BDNF is critical for the normal development and function of central 5-HT neurons and for the elaboration of behaviors that depend on these nerve cells. Therefore, BDNF+/− mice may provide a useful model to study human psychiatric disorders attributed to dysfunction of serotonergic neurons.

Virus-mediated gene transfer into hippocampal CA1 region restores long-term potentiation in brain-derived neurotrophic factor mutant mice.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) has been shown to be impaired in mice deficient in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene, as well as in a number of other knockout animals. Despite its power the gene-targeting approach is always fraught with the danger of looking at the cumulative direct and indirect effects of the absence of a particular gene rather than its immediate function. The re-expression of a specific gene at a selective time point and at a specific site in gene-defective mutants presents a potent procedure to overcome this limitation and to evaluate the causal relationship between the absence of a particular gene and the impairment of a function in gene-defective animals. Here we demonstrate that the re-expression of the BDNF gene in the CA1 region almost completely restores the severely impaired LTP in hippocampal slices of BDNF-deficient mice. The results therefore provide strong evidence for the direct involvement of BDNF in the process of LTP.

Identification of a putative estrogen response element in the gene encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

We have been studying the role and mechanism of estrogen action in the survival and differentiation of neurons in the basal forebrain and its targets in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and olfactory bulb. Previous work has shown that estrogen-target neurons in these regions widely coexpress the mRNAs for the neurotrophin ligands and their receptors, suggesting a potential substrate for estrogen-neurotrophin interactions. Subsequent work indicated that estrogen regulates the expression of two neurotrophin receptor mRNAs in prototypic peripheral neural targets of nerve growth factor. We report herein that the gene encoding the neurotophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) contains a sequence similar to the canonical estrogen response element found in estrogen-target genes. Gel shift and DNA footprinting assays indicate that estrogen receptor-ligand complexes bind to this sequence in the BDNF gene. In vivo, BDNF mRNA was rapidly up-regulated in the cerebral cortex and the olfactory bulb of ovariectomized animals exposed to estrogen. These data suggest that estrogen may regulate BDNF transcription, supporting our hypothesis that estrogen may be in a position to influence neurotrophin-mediated cell functioning, by increasing the availability of specific neurotrophins in forebrain neurons.

Hippocampal long-term potentiation is impaired in mice lacking brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a member of the nerve growth factor (NGF) gene family, has been shown to influence the survival and differentiation of specific classes of neurons in vitro and in vivo. The possibility that neurotrophins are also involved in processes of neuronal plasticity has only recently begun to receive attention. To determine whether BDNF has a function in processes such as long-term potentiation (LTP), we produced a strain of mice with a deletion in the coding sequence of the BDNF gene. We then used hippocampal slices from these mice to investigate whether LTP was affected by this mutation. Homo- and heterozygous mutant mice showed significantly reduced LTP in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. The magnitude of the potentiation, as well as the percentage of cases in which LTP could be induced successfully, was clearly affected. According to the criteria tested, important pharmacological, anatomical, and morphological parameters in the hippocampus of these animals appear to be normal. These results suggest that BDNF might have a functional role in the expression of LTP in the hippocampus.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor rapidly enhances synaptic transmission in hippocampal neurons via postsynaptic tyrosine kinase receptors.

Although neurotrophins are primarily associated with long-term effects on neuronal survival and differentiation, recent studies have shown that acute changes in synaptic transmission can also be produced. In the hippocampus, an area critically involved in learning and memory, we have found that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) rapidly enhanced synaptic efficacy through a previously unreported mechanism--increased postsynaptic responsiveness via a phosphorylation-dependent pathway. Within minutes of BDNF application to cultured hippocampal neurons, spontaneous firing rate was dramatically increased, as were the frequency and amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents. The increased frequency of postsynaptic currents resulted from the change in presynaptic firing. However, the increased amplitude was postsynaptic in origin because it was selectively blocked by intracellular injection of the tyrosine kinase receptor (Ntrk2/TrkB) inhibitor K-252a and potentiated by injection of the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid. These results suggest a role for BDNF in the modulation of synaptic transmission in the hippocampus.

The presence of ascorbate induces expression of brain derived neurotrophic factor in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells after peroxide insult, which is associated with increased survival

Oxidative stress and free radical production have been implicated in Alzheimer's disease, where low levels of the antioxidant vitamin C (ascorbate) have been shown to be associated with the disease. In this study, neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were treated with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of ascorbate in order to elucidate the me0chanism(s) of protection against oxidative stress afforded by ascorbate. Protein oxidation, glutathione levels, cell viability and the effects on the proteome and its oxidized counterpart were monitored. SH-SY5Y cells treated with ascorbate prior to co-incubation with peroxide showed increased viability in comparison to cells treated with peroxide alone. This dual treatment also caused an increase in protein carbonyl content and a decrease in glutathione levels within the cells. Proteins, extracted from SH-SY5Y cells that were treated with either ascorbate or peroxide alone or with ascorbate prior to peroxide, were separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and analyzed for oxidation. Co-incubation for 24 hours decreased the number of oxidised proteins (e.g. acyl CoA oxidase 3) and induced brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. Enhanced expression of BDNF may contribute to the protective effects of ascorbate against oxidative stress in neuronal cells.

The retrograde delivery of adenovirus vector carrying the gene for brain-derived neurotrophic factor protects neurons and oligodendrocytes from apoptosis in the chronically compressed spinal cord of twy/twy mice

STUDY DESIGN: The twy/twy mouse undergoes spontaneous chronic mechanical compression of the spinal cord; this in vivo model system was used to examine the effects of retrograde adenovirus (adenoviral vector [AdV])-mediated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene delivery to spinal neural cells. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the targeting and potential neuroprotective effect of retrograde AdV-mediated BDNF gene transfection in the chronically compressed spinal cord in terms of prevention of apoptosis of neurons and oligodendrocytes. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Several studies have investigated the neuroprotective effects of neurotrophins, including BDNF, in spinal cord injury. However, no report has described the effects of retrograde neurotrophic factor gene delivery in compressed spinal cords, including gene targeting and the potential to prevent neural cell apoptosis. METHODS: AdV-BDNF or AdV-LacZ (as a control gene) was injected into the bilateral sternomastoid muscles of 18-week old twy/twy mice for retrograde gene delivery via the spinal accessory motor neurons. Heterozygous Institute of Cancer Research mice (+/twy), which do not undergo spontaneous spinal compression, were used as a control for the effects of such compression on gene delivery. The localization and cell specificity of ß-galactosidase expression (produced by LacZ gene transfection) and BDNF expression in the spinal cord were examined by coimmunofluorescence staining for neural cell markers (NeuN, neurons; reactive immunology protein, oligodendrocytes; glial fibrillary acidic protein, astrocytes; OX-42, microglia) 4 weeks after gene injection. The possible neuroprotection afforded by retrograde AdV-BDNF gene delivery versus AdV-LacZ-transfected control mice was assessed by scoring the prevalence of apoptotic cells (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling-positive cells) and immunoreactivity to active caspases -3, -8, and -9, p75, neurofilament 200 kD (NF), and for the oligodendroglial progenitor marker, NG2. RESULTS.: Four weeks after injection, the retrograde delivery of the LacZ marker gene was identified in cervical spinal neurons and some glial cells, including oligodendrocytes in the white matter of the spinal cord, in both the twy/twy mouse and the heterozygous Institute of Cancer Research mouse (+/twy). In the compressed spinal cord of twy/twy mouse, AdV-BDNF gene transfection resulted in a significant decrease in the number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling-positive cells present in the spinal cord and a downregulation in the caspase apoptotic pathway compared with AdV-LacZ (control) gene transfection. There was a marked and significant increase in the areas of the spinal cord of AdV-BDNF-injected mice that were NF- and NG2-immunopositive compared with AdV-LacZ-injected mice, indicating the increased presence of neurons and oligodendrocytes in response to BDNF transfection. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that targeted retrograde BDNF gene delivery suppresses apoptosis in neurons and oligodendrocytes in the chronically compressed spinal cord of twy/twy mouse. Further work is required to establish whether this method of gene delivery may provide neuroprotective effects in other situations of compressive spinal cord injury.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor as an indicator of chemical neurotoxicity:an animal-free CNS cell culture model

Recent changes to the legislation on chemicals and cosmetics testing call for a change in the paradigm regarding the current 'whole animal' approach for identifying chemical hazards, including the assessment of potential neurotoxins. Accordingly, since 2004, we have worked on the development of the integrated co-culture of post-mitotic, human-derived neurons and astrocytes (NT2.N/A), for use as an in vitro functional central nervous system (CNS) model. We have used it successfully to investigate indicators of neurotoxicity. For this purpose, we used NT2.N/A cells to examine the effects of acute exposure to a range of test chemicals on the cellular release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). It was demonstrated that the release of this protective neurotrophin into the culture medium (above that of control levels) occurred consistently in response to sub-cytotoxic levels of known neurotoxic, but not non-neurotoxic, chemicals. These increases in BDNF release were quantifiable, statistically significant, and occurred at concentrations below those at which cell death was measureable, which potentially indicates specific neurotoxicity, as opposed to general cytotoxicity. The fact that the BDNF immunoassay is non-invasive, and that NT2.N/A cells retain their functionality for a period of months, may make this system useful for repeated-dose toxicity testing, which is of particular relevance to cosmetics testing without the use of laboratory animals. In addition, the production of NT2.N/A cells without the use of animal products, such as fetal bovine serum, is being explored, to produce a fully-humanised cellular model.

Modulation of GABA and glutamate release by brain-derived neurotrophic factor : role of adenosine A2A receptors

Trabalho Final do Curso de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 2014

Peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is becoming a growing global problem, and there is an urgent need to identify reliable blood biomarkers of the risk and progression of this condition. A potential candidate is the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which modulates major trophic effects in the brain. However, findings are apparently inconsistent regarding peripheral blood BDNF levels in AD patients vs. healthy people. We thus performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the studies that have examined peripheral BDNF levels in patients with AD or mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and healthy controls. We searched articles through PubMed, EMBASE, and hand searching. Over a total pool of 2061 potential articles, 26 met all inclusion criteria (including a total of 1584 AD patients, 556 MCI patients, and 1294 controls). A meta-analysis of BDNF levels between early AD and controls showed statistically significantly higher levels (SMD [95 % CI]: 0.72 [0.31, 1.13]) with no heterogeneity. AD patients with a low (<20) mini-mental state examination (MMSE) score had lower peripheral BDNF levels compared with controls (SMD [95 % CI]: -0.33 [-0.60, -0.05]). However, we found no statistically significant difference in blood (serum/plasma) BDNF levels between all AD patients and controls (standard mean difference, SMD [95 % CI]: -0.16 [-0.4, 0.07]), and there was heterogeneity among studies (P < 0.0001, I 2 = 85.8 %). There were no differences in blood BDNF levels among AD or MCI patients vs. controls by subgroup analyses according to age, sex, and drug use. In conclusion, this meta-analysis shows that peripheral blood BDNF levels seem to be increased in early AD and decreased in AD patients with low MMSE scores respectively compared with their age- and sex-matched healthy referents. At present, however, this could not be concluded from individual studies.

Dietary levels of pure flavonoids improve spatial memory performance and increase hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

Evidence suggests that flavonoid-rich foods are capable of inducing improvements in memory and cognition in animals and humans. However, there is a lack of clarity concerning whether flavonoids are the causal agents in inducing such behavioral responses. Here we show that supplementation with pure anthocyanins or pure flavanols for 6 weeks, at levels similar to that found in blueberry (2% w/w), results in an enhancement of spatial memory in 18 month old rats. Pure flavanols and pure anthocyanins were observed to induce significant improvements in spatial working memory (p = 0.002 and p = 0.006 respectively), to a similar extent to that following blueberry supplementation (p = 0.002). These behavioral changes were paralleled by increases in hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (R = 0.46, p<0.01), suggesting a common mechanism for the enhancement of memory. However, unlike protein levels of BDNF, the regional enhancement of BDNF mRNA expression in the hippocampus appeared to be predominantly enhanced by anthocyanins. Our data support the claim that flavonoids are likely causal agents in mediating the cognitive effects of flavonoid-rich foods.

Prebiotic feeding elevates central brain derived neurotrophic factor, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits and D-serine

The influence of the gut microbiota on brain chemistry has been convincingly demonstrated in rodents. In the absence of gut bacteria, the central expression of brain derived neurotropic factor, (BDNF), and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunits are reduced, whereas, oral probiotics increase brain BDNF, and impart significant anxiolytic effects. We tested whether prebiotic compounds, which increase intrinsic enteric microbiota, also affected brain BDNF and NMDARs. In addition, we examined whether plasma from prebiotic treated rats released BDNF from human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, to provide an initial indication of mechanism of action. Rats were gavaged with fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) or water for five weeks, prior to measurements of brain BDNF, NMDAR subunits and amino acids associated with glutamate neurotransmission (glutamate, glutamine, and serine and alanine enantiomers). Prebiotics increased hippocampal BDNF and NR1 subunit expression relative to controls. The intake of GOS also increased hippocampal NR2A subunits, and frontal cortex NR1 and d-serine. Prebiotics did not alter glutamate, glutamine, l-serine, l-alanine or d-alanine concentrations in the brain, though GOSfeeding raised plasma d-alanine. Elevated levels of plasma peptide YY (PYY) after GOS intake was observed. Plasma from GOS rats increased the release of BDNF from SH-SY5Y cells, but not in the presence of PYY antisera. The addition of synthetic PYY to SH-SY5Y cell cultures, also elevated BDNF secretion. We conclude that prebiotic-mediated proliferation of gut microbiota in rats, like probiotics, increases brain BDNF expression, possibly through the involvement of gut hormones. The effect of GOS on components of central NMDAR signalling was greater than FOS, and may reflect the proliferative potency of GOS on microbiota. Our data therefore, provide a sound basis to further investigate the utility of prebiotics in the maintenance of brain health and adjunctive treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Effects of voluntary running on spatial memory and mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in mice hippocampus after status epilepticus

Voluntary physical activity improves memory and learning ability in rodents, whereas status epilepticus has been associated with memory impairment. Physical activity and seizures have been associated with enhanced hippocampal expression of BDNF, indicating that this protein may have a dual role in epilepsy. The influence of voluntary physical activity on memory and BDNF expression has been poorly studied in experimental models of epilepsy. In this paper, we have investigated the effect of voluntary physical activity on memory and BDNF expression in mice with pilocarpine-incluced epilepsy. Male Swiss mice were assigned to four experimental groups: pilocarpine sedentary (PS), pilocarpine runners (PRs), saline sedentary (SS) and saline runners (SRs). Two days after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus, the affected mice (PR) and their running controls (SR) were housed with access to a running wheel for 28 days. After that, the spatial memory and the expression of the precursor and mature forms of hippocampal BDNF were assessed. PR mice performed better than PS mice in the water maze test. In addition, PR mice had a higher amount of mature BDNF (14 kDa) relative to the total BDNF (14 kDa + 28 kDa + 32 kDa forms) content when compared with PS mice. These results show that voluntary physical activity improved the spatial memory and increased the hippocampal content of mature BDNF of mice with pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.