Bclx regulates the survival of double-positive thymocytes.

The bclx gene has been shown to regulate programmed cell death in vitro. We now show that Bclx expression increases dramatically when T cells differentiate from CD4- CD8- (double negative) thymocytes to CD4+ CD8+ [double positive (DP)] thymocytes. In contrast single-positive (SP) thymocytes express negligible amounts of Bclx protein. This expression pattern contrasts with that of Bcl2, which is present in double-negative thymocytes, down-regulated in DP thymocytes, and reinduced upon maturation to SP thymocytes. Elimination of Bclx by gene targeting dramatically shortens the survival of DP thymocytes but not the survival of SP thymocytes or peripheral SP T cells. These data suggest that the induction of Bclx during thymic maturation plays a critical role in regulating the length of time DP thymocytes survive in the absence of selection.

Development of regulatory T cells in the human thymus

The role of the immune system is to protect an organism against pathogens while maintaining tolerance against self. T cells are an essential component of the immune system and they develop in the thymus. The AIRE (autoimmune regulator) gene product plays an important role in T cell development, as it promotes expression of peripheral tissue antigens in the thymus. Developing T cells, thymocytes, which recognize self-antigens with high affinity are deleted. However, this deletion process is not perfect and not all autoreactive T cells are destroyed. When the distinction between self and non-self fails, tolerance breaks and the immune system attacks the host s own tissues. This results in autoimmunity. Regulatory T cells contribute to the maintenance of self-tolerance. They can actively suppress the function of autoreactive cells. Several populations of cells with regulatory properties have been described, but the best characterized population is the natural regulatory T cells (Treg cells), which develop in the thymus and express the transcription factor FOXP3. The thymic development of Treg cells in humans is the subject of this thesis. Thymocytes at different developmental stages were analyzed using flow cytometry. The CD4-CD8- double-negative (DN) thymocytes are the earliest T cell precursors in the T cell lineage. My results show that the Treg cell marker FOXP3 is up-regulated already in a subset of these DN thymocytes. FOXP3+ cells were also found among the more mature CD4+CD8+ double-positive (DP) cells and among the CD4+ and CD8+ single-positive (SP) thymocytes. The different developmental stages of the FOXP3+ thymocytes were isolated and their gene expression examined by quantitative PCR. T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire analysis was used to compare these different thymocyte populations. My data show that in humans commitment to the Treg cell lineage is an early event and suggest that the development of Treg cells follows a linear developmental pathway, FOXP3+ DN precursors evolving through the DP stage to become mature CD4+ Treg cells. Most T cells have only one kind of TCR on their cell surface, but a small fraction of cells expresses two different TCRs. My results show that the expression of two different TCRs is enriched among Treg cells. Furthermore, both receptors were capable of transmitting signals when bound by a ligand. By extrapolating flow cytometric data, it was estimated that the majority of peripheral blood Treg cells are indeed dual-specific. The high frequency of dual-specific cells among human Treg cells suggests that dual-specificity has a role in directing these cells to the Treg cell lineage. It is known that both genetic predisposition and environmental factors influence the development of autoimmunity. It is also known that the dysfunction or absence of Treg cells leads to the development of autoimmune manifestations. APECED (autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy) is a rare monogenic autoimmune disease, caused by mutations in the AIRE gene. In the absence of AIRE gene product, deletion of self-specific T cells is presumably disturbed and autoreactive T cells escape to the periphery. I examined whether Treg cells are also affected in APECED. I found that the frequency of FOXP3+ Treg cells and the level of FOXP3 expression were significantly lower in APECED patients than in controls. Additionally, when studied in cell cultures, the suppressive capacity of the patients' Treg cells was impaired. Additionally, repertoire analysis showed that the TCR repertoire of Treg cells was altered. These results suggest that AIRE contributes to the development of Treg cells in humans and the selection of Treg cells is impaired in APECED patients. In conclusion, my thesis elucidates the developmental pathway of Treg cells in humans. The differentiation of Tregs begins early during thymic development and both the cells dual-specificity and AIRE probably affect the final commitment of Treg cells.

Purification and characterization of three toxins and two agglutinins from Abrus precatorius seed by using lactamyl-Sepharose affinity chromatography

Three toxins, abrin-I, -II, and -III, and two agglutinins, APA-I and -II, were purified from the seeds of Abrus precatorius by lactamyl-Sepharose affinity chromatography followed by gel filtration and DEAE-Sephacel column chromatography. abrin-I did not bind on DEAE-Sephacel column chromatography and the bound abrin-II, abrin-III, APA-I, and APA-II were eluted with a sodium acetate gradient. The identity of each protein was established by sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing. The relative molecular weights are abrin-I, 64,000; abrin-II and abrin-III, 63,000 each: APA-I, 130,000; and APA-II, 128,000. Isoelectric focusing revealed microheterogeneity due to the presence of isoforms in each protein. Toxicity and binding studies further confirmed the differences among the lectins. The time course of inhibition of protein synthesis in thymocytes by the toxins showed lag times of 78, 61, and 72 min with Ki's of 0.55, 0.99, and 0.74 ms−1 at a 0.63 nImage concentration of each of abrin-I, -II, and -III, respectively. A Scatchard plot obtained from the equilibrium measurement for the lectins binding to lactamyl-Sepharose beads showed nonlinearity, indicating a cooperative mode of binding which was not observed for APA-I binding to Sepharose 4B beads. Further, by the criterion of the isoelectric focusing profile, it was shown that the least toxic abrin-I and the highly toxic abrin-II isolated by lactamyl-Sepharose chromatography were not retained on a low-affinity Sepharose 4B matrix, which signifies the necessity of using a high-affinity matrix for the purification of the lectins.

Molecular mechanisms of interleukin-2 gene inducibility: developmental control and combinatorial action of transcription factors

Interleukin-2 is one of the lymphokines secreted by T helper type 1 cells upon activation mediated by T-cell receptor (TCR) and accessory molecules. The ability to express IL-2 is correlated with T-lineage commitment and is regulated during T cell development and differentiation. Understanding the molecular mechanism of how IL-2 gene inducibility is controlled at each transition and each differentiation process of T-cell development is to understand one aspect of T-cell development. In the present study, we first attempted to elucidate the molecular basis for the developmental changes of IL-2 gene inducibility. We showed that IL-2 gene inducibility is acquired early in immature CD4- CD8-TCR- thymocytes prior to TCR gene rearrangement. Similar to mature T cells, a complete set of transcription factors can be induced at this early stage to activate IL-2 gene expression. The progression of these cells to cortical CD4^+CD8^+TCR^(1o) cells is accompanied by the loss of IL-2 gene inducibility. We demonstrated that DNA binding activities of two transcription factors AP-1 and NF-AT are reduced in cells at this stage. Further, the loss of factor binding, especially AP-1, is attributable to the reduced ability to activate expression of three potential components of AP-1 and NF-AT, including c-Fos, FosB, and Fra-2. We next examined the interaction of transcription factors and the IL-2 promoter in vivo by using the EL4 T cell line and two non-T cell lines. We showed an all-or-none phenomenon regarding the factor-DNA interaction, i.e., in activated T cells, the IL-2 promoter is occupied by sequence-specific transcription factors when all the transcription factors are available; in resting T cells or non-T cells, no specific protein-DNA interaction is observed when only a subset of factors are present in the nuclei. Purposefully reducing a particular set of factor binding activities in stimulated T cells using pharmacological agents cyclosporin A or forskolin also abolished all interactions. The results suggest that a combinatorial and coordinated protein-DNA interaction is required for IL-2 gene activation. The thymocyte experiments clearly illustrated that multiple transcription factors are regulated during intrathymic T-cell development, and this regulation in tum controls the inducibility of the lineage-specific IL-2 gene. The in vivo study of protein-DNA interaction stressed the combinatorial action of transcription factors to stably occupy the IL-2 promoter and to initiate its transcription, and provided a molecular mechanism for changes in IL-2 gene inducibility in T cells undergoing integration of multiple environmental signals.

Isolation of the murine interleukin 2 gene and characterization of its regulatory architecture

Interleukin 2 (IL2) is the primary growth hormone used by mature T cells and this lymphokine plays an important role in the magnification of cell-mediated immune responses. Under normal circumstances its expression is limited to antigen-activated type 1 helper T cells (T_H1) and the ability to transcribe this gene is often regarded as evidence for commitment to this developmental lineage. There is, however, abundant evidence than many non-T_H1 T cells, under appropriate conditions, possess the ability to express this gene. Of paramount interest in the study of T-cell development is the mechanisms by which differentiating thymocytes are endowed with particular combinations of cell surface proteins and response repertoires. For example, why do most helper T cells express the CD4 differentiation antigen?

As a first step in understanding these developmental processes the gene encoding IL2 was isolated from a mouse genomic library by probing with a conspecific IL2 cDNA. The sequence of the 5' flanking region from + 1 to -2800 was determined and compared to the previously reported human sequence. Extensive identity exists between +1 and -580 (86%) and sites previously shown to be crucial for the proper expression of the human gene are well conserved in both sequence location in the mouse counterpart.

Transient expression assays were used to evaluate the contribution of various genomic sequences to high-level gene expression mediated by a cloned IL2 promoter fragment. Differing lengths of 5' flanking DNA, all terminating in the 5' untranslated region, were linked to a reporter gene, bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) and enzyme activity was measured after introduction into IL2-producing cell lines. No CAT was ever detected without stimulation of the recipient cells. A cloned promoter fragment containing only 321 bp of upstream DNA was expressed well in both Jurkat and EL4.El cells. Addition of intragenic or downstream DNA to these 5' IL2-CAT constructs showed that no obvious regulatory regions resided there. However, increasing the extent of 5' DNA from -321 to -2800 revealed several positive and negative regulatory elements. One negative region that was well characterized resided between -750 and -1000 and consisted almost exclusively of alternating purine and pyrimidines. There is no sequence resembling this in the human gene now, but there is evidence that there may have once been.

No region, when deleted, could relax either the stringent induction-dependence on cell-type specificity displayed by this promoter. Reagents that modulated endogenous IL2 expression, such as cAMP, cyclosporin A, and IL1, affected expression of the 5' IL2-CAT constructs also. For a given reagent, expression from all expressible constructs was suppressed or enhanced to the same extent. This suggests that these modulators affect IL2 expression through perturbation of a central inductive signal rather than by summation of the effects of discrete, independently regulated, negative and positive transcription factors.

Efeito da restrição protéica materna durante a lactação sobre a resposta de timócitos da prole jovem de ratos Wistar

Neste estudo investigamos as consequências da restrição protéica materna durante a lactação sobre a resposta de timócitos da prole jovem de ratos Wistar (grupo D), identificando o papel da leptina nas alterações encontradas. Observamos que, quando comparados ao grupo controle, os animais do grupo D apresentaram, aos 30 dias de vida, uma diminuição significativa tanto do peso corporal quanto do timo. Contudo, não observamos alterações no número de timócitos, no perfil de células CD4/CD8 ou na resposta proliferativa destas células. Sistemicamente, o grupo D não apresentou alterações nos níveis séricos de corticosterona ou no conteúdo nuclear do seu receptor (GR) em timócitos. Apesar dos animais D não apresentarem alterações nos níveis circulantes de leptina, a expressão do seu receptor, ObRb, estava aumentada nos timócitos. Esta alteração foi acompanhada pela amplificação da resposta de sinalização da leptina nestas células, observada por um aumento na ativação de JAK2 e STAT3 após a incubação com leptina. Os timócitos isolados do grupo D apresentaram uma diminuição significativa na taxa de apoptose espontânea quando comparados ao grupo controle. Corroborando estes resultados, demonstramos que os timócitos dos animais D apresentam um aumento na expressão da proteína antiapoptótica Bcl-2 e uma redução da expressão da proteína próapoptótica Bax, além de um maior conteúdo de Pró-caspase-3, entretanto, não encontramos alterações no conteúdo de Bad. Além disso, timócitos do grupo D apresentaram um maior conteúdo da subunidade p65 do NFĸB no núcleo, associado a uma menor expressão de IĸBα no citoplasma. Finalmente, observamos um aumento na expressão do RNAm para o gene ob (leptina) mas não para o gene db (receptor) no microambiente tímico dos animais D. Em conjunto, nossos dados mostram que a restrição protéica durante a lactação afeta a homeostase tímica, induzindo uma maior atividade de leptina, que protege os timócitos da apoptose na prole jovem, sugerindo que esses animais poderiam ser mais suscetíveis a alterações na resposta imune na vida aduta.

Transgene for growth hormone in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) promotes thymus development

The transgenic carp were produced by micro-injection of CAgcGHc into the fertilized eggs. Observation of the thymus development between the transgenics and non-transgenic controls was carried out. The thymus of one-year-old transgenics F1 showed a great increase in both size and weight. The unilateral thymus of the transgenics weighed from 190 to 295 mg with average 218.6 mg, whereas the unilateral thymus of the controls weighed 20-81 mg with average 42.5 mg; i.e. the thymus weight in the transgenics was 5.14 fold over that in the controls. The index of thymus/body weight in the transgenics was 2.97 fold over the controls. Light microscopy observation indicated that the thymus of the transgenics; well developed with the thickened outer region and compactly arranged thymocytes, while the thymus in the controls were degenerating with the thinned outer region, scattered thymocytes and groups of fatty cells. Further analysis with the electron microscopy revealed that pro-liferous cells in the transgenics; were mainly small lymphocytes and no pathological changes were found. The results confirmed that the "All-fish" GH-transgene promotes thymus development and thymocyte proliferation, and retards thymus degeneration. The study has laid a foundation for further analysis of the immunobiological function in GH-transgenic carp.

Hemizygosity for Atm and Brca1 influence the balance between cell transformation and apoptosis

Background: In recent years data from both mouse models and human tumors suggest that loss of one allele of genes involved in DNA repair pathways may play a central role in genomic instability and carcinogenesis. Additionally several examples in mouse models confirmed that loss of one allele of two functionally related genes may have an additive effect on tumor development. To understand some of the mechanisms involved, we examined the role of monoallelic loss or Atm and Brca1 on cell transformation and apoptosis induced by radiation. Methods: Cell transformation and apoptosis were measured in mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEF) and thymocytes respectively. Combinations of wild type and hemizygous genotypes for ATM and BRCA1 were tested in various comparisons. Results: Haploinsufficiency of either ATM or BRCA1 resulted in an increase in the incidence of radiation-induced transformation of MEF and a corresponding decrease in the proportion of thymocytes dying an apoptotic death, compared with cells from wild-type animals. Combined haploinsufficiency for both genes resulted in an even larger effect on apoptosis. Conclusions: Under stress, the efficiency and capacity for DNA repair mediated by the ATM/BRCA1 cell signalling network depends on the expression levels of both proteins.

The role of reciprocal regulation between TAL1 and miRNA expression in T-cell leukemia progression

Tese de doutoramento, Ciências Biomédicas (Biologia Celular e Molecular), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Medicina, 2015

Towards the therapeutic use of regulatory T cells for the treatment of human autoimmune diseases

Tese de doutoramento, Medicina (Imunologia Clínica), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Medicina, 2016

Direct binding of peptides to MHC class I molecules on living cells. Analysis at the single cell level.

To directly assess the binding of exogenous peptides to cell surface-associated MHC class I molecules at the single cell level, we examined the possibility of combining the use of biotinylated peptide derivatives with an immunofluorescence detection system based on flow cytometry. Various biotinylated derivatives of the adenovirus 5 early region 1A peptide 234-243, an antigenic peptide recognized by CTL in the context of H-2Db, were first screened in functional assays for their ability to bind efficiently to Db molecules on living cells. Suitable peptide derivatives were then tested for their ability to generate positive fluorescence signals upon addition of phycoerythrin-labeled streptavidin to peptide derivative-bearing cells. Strong fluorescent staining of Db-expressing cells was achieved after incubation with a peptide derivative containing a biotin group at the C-terminus. Competition experiments using the unmodified parental peptide as well as unrelated peptides known to bind to Kd, Kb, or Db, respectively, established that binding of the biotinylated peptide to living cells was Db-specific. By using Con A blasts derived from different H-2 congenic mouse strains, it could be shown that the biotinylated peptide bound only to Db among > 20 class I alleles tested. Moreover, binding of the biotinylated peptide to cells expressing the Dbm13 and Dbm14 mutant molecules was drastically reduced compared to Db. Binding of the biotinylated peptide to freshly isolated Db+ cells was readily detectable, allowing direct assessment of the relative amount of peptide bound to distinct lymphocyte subpopulations by three-color flow cytometry. While minor differences between peripheral T and B cells could be documented, thymocytes were found to differ widely in their peptide binding activity. In all cases, these differences correlated positively with the differential expression of Db at the cell surface. Finally, kinetic studies at different temperatures strongly suggested that the biotinylated peptide first associated with Db molecules available constitutively at the cell surface and then with newly arrived Db molecules.

Basal and antigen-induced exposure of the proline-rich sequence in CD3ε.

The CD3ε cytoplasmic tail contains a conserved proline-rich sequence (PRS) that influences TCR-CD3 expression and signaling. Although the PRS can bind the SH3.1 domain of the cytosolic adapter Nck, whether the PRS is constitutively available for Nck binding or instead represents a cryptic motif that is exposed via conformational change upon TCR-CD3 engagement (CD3Δc) is currently unresolved. Furthermore, the extent to which a cis-acting CD3ε basic amino acid-rich stretch (BRS), with its unique phosphoinositide-binding capability, might impact PRS accessibility is not clear. In this study, we found that freshly harvested primary thymocytes expressed low to moderate basal levels of Nck-accessible PRS ("open-CD3"), although most TCR-CD3 complexes were inaccessible to Nck ("closed-CD3"). Ag presentation in vivo induced open-CD3, accounting for half of the basal level found in thymocytes from MHC(+) mice. Additional stimulation with either anti-CD3 Abs or peptide-MHC ligands further elevated open-CD3 above basal levels, consistent with a model wherein antigenic engagement induces maximum PRS exposure. We also found that the open-CD3 conformation induced by APCs outlasted the time of ligand occupancy, marking receptors that had been engaged. Finally, CD3ε BRS-phosphoinositide interactions played no role in either adoption of the initial closed-CD3 conformation or induction of open-CD3 by Ab stimulation. Thus, a basal level of open-CD3 is succeeded by a higher, induced level upon TCR-CD3 engagement, involving CD3Δc and prolonged accessibility of the CD3ε PRS to Nck.

Étude du rôle de la MAP Kinase non-conventionnelle ERK3 dans le développement thymique et l'activation des lymphocytes T

Les voies de signalisation des MAP kinases (MAPK) conventionnelles jouent des rôles essentiels pendant le développement des lymphocytes T (LT) ainsi que lors de leur activation suite à la reconnaissance antigénique. En raison de ses différences structurelles ainsi que de son mode de régulation, ERK3 fait partie des MAPK dites non-conventionnelles. Encore aujourd’hui, les événements menant à l’activation de ERK3, ses substrats ou partenaires ainsi que sa fonction physiologique demeurent peu caractérisés. Nous avons entrepris dans cette thèse d’étudier le rôle de ERK3 lors du développement et de l’activation des LT en utilisant un modèle de souris déficient pour l’expression de ERK3. Nous avons premièrement établi que ERK3 est exprimée chez les thymocytes. Ensuite, nous avons évalué le développement thymique chez la souris ERK3-déficiente et nous avons observé une diminution significative de la cellularité aux étapes DN1, DP et SP CD4+ du développement des LT. La création de chimères hématopoïétiques ERK3-déficientes nous a permis de démontrer que la diminution du nombre de cellules observée aux étapes DN1 et DP est autonome aux thymocytes alors que le phénotype observé à l’étape SP CD4+ est dépendant de l’abolition simultanée de ERK3 dans l’épithélium thymique et dans les thymocytes. Une étude plus approfondie de l’étape DP nous a permis de démontrer qu’en absence de ERK3, les cellules DP meurent plus abondamment et accumulent des cassures doubles brins (DSB) dans leur ADN. De plus, nous avons démontré que ces cassures dans l’ADN sont réalisées par les enzymes RAG et qu’en absence de ces dernières, la cellularité thymique est presque rétablie chez la souris ERK3-déficiente. Ces résultats suggèrent que ERK3 est impliquée dans un mécanisme essentiel à la régulation des DSB pendant le réarrangement V(D)J de la chaîne  du récepteur des cellules T (RCT). Dans le deuxième article présenté dans cette thèse, nous avons montré que ERK3 est exprimé chez les LT périphériques, mais seulement suite à leur activation via le RCT. Une fois activés in vitro les LT ERK3-déficients présentent une diminution marquée de leur prolifération et dans la production de cytokines. De plus, les LT ERK3-déficients survivent de façon équivalente aux LT normaux, mais étonnamment, ils expriment des niveaux plus faibles de la molécule anti-apoptotique Bcl-2. Ces résultats suggèrent que la prolifération réduite des LT ERK3-déficients est la conséquence d’une altération majeure de leur activation. Ainsi, nos résultats établissent que ERK3 est une MAPK qui joue des rôles essentiels et uniques dans le développement thymique et dans l’activation des lymphocytes T périphériques. Grâce à ces travaux, nous attribuons pour la toute première fois une fonction in vivo pour ERK3 au cours de deux différentes étapes de la vie d’un LT.

Mécanisme de leucémogénèse par les oncogènes SCL et LMO1

La leucémie lymphoïde représente 30% de tous les cancers chez l’enfant. SCL (« Stem cell leukemia ») et LMO1/2 (« LIM only protein ») sont les oncogènes les plus fréquemment activés dans les leucémies aiguës des cellules T chez l'enfant (T-ALL). L’expression ectopique de ces deux oncoprotéines dans le thymus de souris transgéniques induit un blocage de la différenciation des cellules T suivie d’une leucémie agressive qui reproduit la maladie humaine. Afin de définir les voies génétiques qui collaborent avec ces oncogènes pour induire des leucémies T-ALL, nous avons utilisé plusieurs approches. Par une approche de gène candidat, nous avons premièrement identifié le pTalpha, un gène crucial pour la différenciation des cellules T, comme cible directe des hétérodimères E2AHEB dans les thymocytes immatures. De plus, nous avons montré que pendant la différenciation normale des thymocytes, SCL inhibe la fonction E2A et HEB et qu’un dosage entre les protéines E2A, HEB et SCL détermine l’expression du pTalpha. Deuxièmement, par l’utilisation d’une approche globale et fonctionnelle, nous avons identifié de nouveaux gènes cibles des facteurs de transcription E2A et HEB et montré que SCL et LMO1 affectent la différenciation thymocytaire au stade préleucémique en inhibant globalement l’activité transcriptionnelle des protéines E par un mécanisme dépendant de la liaison à l’ADN. De plus, nous avons découvert que les oncogènes SCL et LMO1 sont soit incapables d’inhiber totalement l’activité suppresseur de tumeur des protéines E ou agissent par une voie d’induction de la leucémie différente de la perte de fonction des protéines E. Troisièmement, nous avons trouvé que Notch1, un gène retrouvé activé dans la majorité des leucémies T-ALL chez l’enfant, opère dans la même voie génétique que le pré-TCR pour collaborer avec les oncogènes SCL et LMO1 lors du processus de leucémogénèse. De plus, cette collaboration entre des facteurs de transcription oncogéniques et des voies de signalisation normales et importantes pour la détermination de la destinée cellulaire pourraient expliquer la transformation spécifique à un type cellulaire. Quatrièmement, nous avons trouvé que les oncogènes SCL et LMO1 sont des inducteurs de sénescence au stade préleucémique. De plus, la délétion du locus INK4A/ARF, un évènement retrouvé dans la majorité des leucémies pédiatriques T-ALL associées avec une activation de SCL, collabore aves les oncogènes SCL et LMO1 dans l’induction de la leucémie. Cette collaboration entre la perte de régulateurs de la sénescence suggère qu’un contournement de la réponse de sénescence pourrait être nécessaire à la transformation. Finalement, nous avons aussi montré que l’interaction directe entre les protéines SCL et LMO1 est critique pour l’induction de la leucémie. Ces études ont donc permis d’identifier des évènements collaborateurs, ainsi que des propriétés cellulaires affectées par les oncogènes associés avec la leucémie et de façon plus générale dans le développement du cancer.

Développement de modulateurs allostériques peptidiques inhibiteurs de l’activité des récepteurs de l’interleukine 1 et de la vasopressine

L’approche Module X a été créée dans le but de concevoir de petits peptides modulateurs ayant des propriétés allostériques. Module X reproduit de petites parties des portions extracellulaires flexibles des récepteurs. Ces petits peptides vont interagir en s’interposant entre deux sous unités ou entre deux régions de la même sous-unité qui interagissent par des liens hydrogènes, des ponts salins ou des liens disulfure. Ces régions sont spécialement choisies à l’extérieur du domaine de liaison du ligand orthostérique et sont situées dans les régions inter domaines, la portion juxta membranaire ou dans les boucles. Étant donné que les boucles sont exposées durant les changements de conformation, une séquence peptidique reproduisant certaines régions de ces boucles pourrait s’insérer à un endroit approprié dans la structure où se lier à son partenaire de signalisation dans le complexe protéique, ce qui aurait comme effet de déplacer l’équilibre de l’ensemble vers un état particulier et modulerait ainsi la signalisation. De cette façon, certaines voies de signalisation pourraient être partiellement inhibées tandis que d’autres voies ne seraient pas touchées puisque le ligand orthostérique pourrait toujours se lier au récepteur. Dans une première étude, nous avons conçu des peptides inhibiteurs du récepteur de l’interleukine 1 (IL-1R/IL-1RAcP) plus précisément en reproduisant des régions flexibles de la protéine accessoire, sous-unité signalisatrice du récepteur. IL-1 est un médiateur majeur de l’inflammation, mais le seul antagoniste disponible est l’analogue naturel de IL-1, IL-1Ra qui compétitionne avec IL-1 pour le site de liaison sur le récepteur. Nous avons conçu plusieurs peptides à partir des boucles de la protéine accessoire. Un de ces peptides, rytvela (101.10) a démontré des propriétés de non-compétitivité et de sélectivité fonctionnelle caractéristiques des modulateurs allostériques. 101.10 bloque la prolifération des thymocytes et la synthèse de PGE2 avec un IC50 de 1 nM mais une efficacité de 100 % et 45 % respectivement et ne déplace pas IL-1 radioactif dans des essais de radioliaisons. De plus, 101.10 n’a qu’un effet minime sur l’affinité de IL-1 pour son récepteur. 101.10 démontre, de plus, une activité inhibitrice in vivo dans des modèles d’inflammation de l’intestin chez le rat (efficacité supérieure aux corticostéroïdes et à IL-1Ra) et de dermatite chez la souris de même que dans un modèle d’hyperthermie induite par IL-1. La deuxième étude démontre que Module X peut être utilisé pour concevoir des inhibiteurs pour une autre grande famille de récepteurs : les récepteurs couplés aux protéines G. La vasopressine joue un rôle important dans l’équilibre hydro-osmotique et un moindre rôle dans la vasomotricité. Six peptides ont été conçus à partir de régions juxta membranaires du récepteur de la vasopressine V2R. Le peptide le plus actif, VRQ397 (IC50 = 0,69 nM dans un modèle de vasorelaxation du crémastère), a démontré de la sélectivité fonctionnelle en inhibant la synthèse de prostacycline mais sans inhiber l’activation de la protéine Gs et la génération d’ AMP cyclique. Le peptide VRQ397 ne pouvait déplacer le ligand naturel AVP marqué radioactivement; de même VRQ397 radioactif ne se liait que sur V2R et non pas sur d’autres récepteurs de la même famille tel que V1R (récepteur de la vasopressine de type I). Ces études décrivent la caractérisation de petits peptides modulateurs de la signalisation de IL-1R et V2R et présentant des propriétés de modulateurs allostériques.