Carbon pools and poverty peaks in Lao PDR

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and enhancing forest carbon stocks in developing countries (REDD+) is heavily promoted in Laos. REDD+ is often perceived as an opportunity to jointly address climate change and poverty and, therefore, could come timely for Laos to combine its prominent national target of poverty eradication with global climate mitigation efforts. Countrywide planning of the right approaches to REDD+ combined with poverty alleviation requires knowledge of the spatial combination of poverty and carbon stocks at the national level. This study combined spatial information on carbon stored in vegetation and on poverty and created carbon-poverty typologies for the whole country at the village level. We found that 11% of the villages of Laos have high to very high average village-level carbon stock densities and a predominantly poor population. These villages cover 20% of the territory and are characterized by low population density. Shifting cultivation areas in the northwestern parts of the country have a higher carbon mitigation potential than areas in the central and eastern highlands due to a more favorable climate. Finally, we found that in Laos the majority (58%) of poor people live in areas with low carbon stock densities without major potential to store carbon. Accordingly, REDD+ cannot be considered a core instrument for poverty alleviation. The carbon-poverty typologies presented here provide answers to basic questions related to planning and managing of REDD+. They could serve as a starting point for the design of systems to monitor both socioeconomic and environmental development at the national level.

Assessing sustainable forest management under REDD+: a community-based labour perspective

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation plus (REDD+) encourages economic support for reducing deforestation and conserving or increasing existing forest carbon stocks. The way in which incentives are structured affects trade-offs between local livelihoods, carbon emission reduction, and the cost-effectiveness of a REDD + programme. Looking at first-hand empirical data from 208 farming households in the Bolivian Amazon froma household economy perspective, our study explores two policy options: 1) compensated reduction of emissions fromold-growth forest clearing for agriculture, and 2) direct payments for labour input into sustainable forest anagement combined with a commitment not to clear old-growth forest. Our results indicate that direct payments for sustainable forest management ��� an approach that focuses on valuing farmers' labour input ��� can be more cost-effective than compensated reduction and in some cases is themost appropriate choice for achieving improved household incomes, permanence of changes, avoidance of leakages, and community-based institutional enforcement for sustainable forest management.

Carbon sequestration in community forests: trade-offs, multiple outcomes and institutional diversity in the Bolivian Amazon

Carbon sequestration in community forests presents a major challenge for the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) programme. This article uses a comparative analysis of the agricultural and forestry practices of indigenous peoples and settlers in the Bolivian Amazon to show how community-level institutions regulate the trade-offs between community livelihoods, forest species diversity, and carbon sequestration. The authors argue that REDD+ implementation in such areas runs the risk of: 1) reinforcing economic inequalities based on previous and potential land use impacts on ecosystems (baseline), depending on the socio-cultural groups targeted; 2) increasing pressure on land used for food production, possibly reducing food security and redirecting labour towards scarce off-farm income opportunities; 3) increasing dependence on external funding and carbon market fluctuations instead of local production strategies; and 4) further incentivising the privatization and commodification of land to avoid transaction costs associated with collective property rights. The article also advises against taking a strictly economic, market-based approach to carbon sequestration, arguing that such an approach could endanger fragile socio-ecological systems. REDD+ schemes should directly support existing efforts towards forest sustainability rather than simply compensating local land users for avoiding deforestation and forest degradation

An��lisis de Mezclas Espectrales para el estudio de la deforestaci��n y establecimiento de la l��nea de referencia de emisiones en el marco del programa REDD. Aplicaci��n a la regi��n de San Mart��n, Per��.

La determinaci��n de la l��nea hist��rica de deforestaci��n como parte del establecimiento de la l��nea de referencia de emisiones, en el marco del programa REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), permite medir la evoluci��n de la p��rdida de bosque en un periodo definido de tiempo. El objetivo fue calcular la l��nea hist��rica de deforestaci��n mediante estudio multitemporal para el periodo 1998-2011, en la regi��n de San Mart��n (Per��), utilizando la metodolog��a de An��lisis de Mezclas Espectrales (Spectral Mixtures Analysis) con im��genes Landsat 5-TM. Palabras clave: teledetecci��n, Landsat 5-TM, an��lisis de mezclas espectrales, REDD, Protocolo de Kioto, deforestaci��n, Amazon��a, SMA Spectral Mixture Analysis for the study of deforestation and establishing reference emissions level within the REDD Program framework. Application to the region of San Martin, Peru. Abstract: Determination of the historical baseline of deforestation as part of establishing the reference emissions level within the REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) Program framework allows for the measurement of the evolution of forest loss over a defined period time. The objective was to estimate the historical baseline of deforestation through a multi-temporal study for the period 1998-2011, in the region of San Martin (Peru), using the methodology of Spectral Mixture Analysis (Mixtures Spectral Analysis) from Landsat 5-TM imagery. Keywords: remote sensing, Landsat 5-TM, spectral mixtures analysis, REDD, Kyoto Protocol, deforestation, Amazon, SMA

Carbon sequestration associated to the land-use and land-cover changes in the forestry sector in Southern Brazil.

We studied the Para��ba do Sul river watershed , S��o Paulo state (PSWSP), Southeastern Brazil, in order to assess the land use and cover (LULC) and their implication s to the amount of carbon (C) stored in the forest cover between the years 1985 and 2015. Th e region covers a n area of 1,395,975 ha . We used images made by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) sensor (OLI/Landsat - 8) to produce mappings , and image segmentation techniques to produce vectors with homogeneous characteristics. The training samples and the samples used for classification and validation were collected from the segmented image. To quantify the C stocked in aboveground live biomass (AGLB) , we used an indirect method and applied literature - based reference values. The recovery of 205,690 ha of a secondary Native Forest (NF) after 1985 sequestered 9.7 Tg (Teragram) of C . Considering the whole NF area (455,232 ha), the amount of C accumulated al ong the whole watershed was 3 5 .5 Tg , and the whole Eucalyptus crop (EU) area (113,600 ha) sequester ed 4. 4 Tg of C. Thus, the total amount of C sequestered in the whole watershed (NF + EU) was 3 9 . 9 Tg of C or 1 45 . 6 Tg of CO 2 , and the NF areas were responsible for the large st C stock at the watershed (8 9 %). Therefore , the increase of the NF cover contribut es positively to the reduction of CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere, and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD + ) may become one of the most promising compensation mechanisms for the farmers who increased forest cover at their farms.

Study of the emissions from pyrolytic and oxidative thermal decomposition of PVC

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is one of the plastics most extensively used due to its versatility. The demand of PVC resin in Europe during 2012 reached 5000 ktonnes1. PVC waste management is a big problem because of the high volume generated all over the world and its chlorine content. End-of-life PVC is mainly mixed with municipal solid waste (MSW) and one common disposal option for this is waste-to-energy incineration (WtE). The presence of plastics such as PVC in the fuel mix increases the heating value of the fuel. PVC has two times higher energy content than MSW ���around 20 MJ/kg vs 10 MJ/kg, respectively. However, the high chlorine content in PVC resin, 57 wt.%, may be a source for the formation of hazardous chlorinated organic pollutants in thermal processes. Chlorine present in the feedstock of WtE plants plays an important role in the formation of (i) chlorine (Cl2) and (ii) hydrochloric gas (HCl), both of them responsible for corrosion, and (iii) chlorinated organic pollutants2. In this work, pyrolytic and oxidative thermal degradation of PVC resin were carried out in a laboratory scale reactor at 500 ��C in order to analyze the influence of the reaction atmosphere on the emissions evolved. Special emphasis was put on the analysis of chlorinated organic pollutants such as polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDFs) and other related compounds like polychlorobenzenes (PCBzs), polychlorophenols (PCPhs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Another objective of this work was to compare the results with those of a previous work3 in which emissions at different temperatures in both pyrolysis and combustion of another PVC resin had been studied; in that case, experiments for PCDD/Fs emissions had been performed only at 850 ��C.

Reducing emissions from agriculture to meet the 2��C target

Peer reviewed

Measuring nitrous oxide emissions from conventional and controlled release fertilisers in south-east Queensland pineapple production

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 298 times higher than carbon dioxide. Soils are a natural source of N2O, contributing 65% of global emissions. This paper is the first in Australia to measure and compare N2O emissions from pre-plant controlled release (CR) and conventional granular (CV) fertilisers in pineapple production using static PVC chambers to capture N2O emissions. Farm 1 cumulative emissions from the CR fertiliser were 3.22 kg ha-1 compared to 6.09 kg ha-1 produced by the CV. At farm 2 the CV blend emitted 2.36 kg ha-1 in comparison to the CR blend of 2.92 kg ha-1. Daily N2O flux rates showed a relationship of direct response to rainfall and soil moisture availability. High emissions were observed for wheel tracks where increased N2O emissions may be linked to soil compaction and waterlogging that creates anaerobic conditions after rain events. Emission measurements over three months highlighted the inconsistencies found in other studies relative to reducing emissions through controlled release nitrogen. More investigations are required to verify the benefits associated with controlled release fertiliser use in pineapples, placement and seasonal timing to address N2O emissions in pineapples.

Evaluating, predicting and mapping belowground carbon stores in Kenyan mangroves.

Despite covering only approximately 138,000 km2, mangroves are globally important carbon sinks with carbon density values 3 to 4 times that of terrestrial forests. A key challenge in evaluating the carbon benefits from mangrove forest conservation is the lack of rigorous spatially resolved estimates of mangrove sediment carbon stocks; most mangrove carbon is stored belowground. Previous work has focused on detailed estimations of carbon stores over relatively small areas, which has obvious limitations in terms of generality and scope of application. Most studies have focused only on quantifying the top 1m of belowground carbon (BGC). Carbon stored at depths beyond 1m, and the effects of mangrove species, location and environmental context on these stores, is poorly studied. This study investigated these variables at two sites (Gazi and Vanga in the south of Kenya) and used the data to produce a country-specific BGC predictive model for Kenya and map BGC store estimates throughout Kenya at spatial scales relevant for climate change research, forest management and REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation). The results revealed that mangrove species was the most reliable predictor of BGC; Rhizophora muronata had the highest mean BGC with 1485.5t C ha-1. Applying the species-based predictive model to a base map of species distribution in Kenya for the year 2010 with a 2.5m2 resolution, produced an estimate of 69.41 Mt C (�� 9.15 95% C.I.) for BGC in Kenyan mangroves. When applied to a 1992 mangrove distribution map, the BGC estimate was 75.65 Mt C (�� 12.21 95% C.I.); an 8.3% loss in BGC stores between 1992 and 2010 in Kenya. The country level mangrove map provides a valuable tool for assessing carbon stocks and visualising the distribution of BGC. Estimates at the 2.5m2 resolution provide sufficient detail for highlighting and prioritising areas for mangrove conservation and restoration.

Os desafios para uma nova agricultura na Amaz��nia.

Dar aten����o para as ��reas com florestas, que representam 82% da Amaz��nia, ou para os 18% j�� desmatados constitui o atual dilema pol��tico. A ��nfase na biodiversidade como sendo a grande op����o futura para a Amaz��nia carrega equ��vocos na busca futur��stica de produtos, esquecendo a biodiversidade do passado e do presente, na qual est��o as grandes oportunidades. Os atuais recursos financeiros do Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) seriam adequados na gera����o de tecnologias apropriadas do que a cria����o de um assistencialismo ambiental. A redu����o dos desmatamentos e queimadas precisa estar acompanhada da incorpora����o de ��reas desmatadas, sob risco de prejudicar as atividades produtivas da Amaz��nia

Greenhouse gas emissions from peat and biomass-derived fuels, electricity and heat ��� Estimation of various production chains by using LCA methodology

More discussion is required on how and which types of biomass should be used to achieve a significant reduction in the carbon load released into the atmosphere in the short term. The energy sector is one of the largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters and thus its role in climate change mitigation is important. Replacing fossil fuels with biomass has been a simple way to reduce carbon emissions because the carbon bonded to biomass is considered as carbon neutral. With this in mind, this thesis has the following objectives: (1) to study the significance of the different GHG emission sources related to energy production from peat and biomass, (2) to explore opportunities to develop more climate friendly biomass energy options and (3) to discuss the importance of biogenic emissions of biomass systems. The discussion on biogenic carbon and other GHG emissions comprises four case studies of which two consider peat utilization, one forest biomass and one cultivated biomasses. Various different biomass types (peat, pine logs and forest residues, palm oil, rapeseed oil and jatropha oil) are used as examples to demonstrate the importance of biogenic carbon to life cycle GHG emissions. The biogenic carbon emissions of biomass are defined as the difference in the carbon stock between the utilization and the non-utilization scenarios of biomass. Forestry-drained peatlands were studied by using the high emission values of the peatland types in question to discuss the emission reduction potential of the peatlands. The results are presented in terms of global warming potential (GWP) values. Based on the results, the climate impact of the peat production can be reduced by selecting high-emission-level peatlands for peat production. The comparison of the two different types of forest biomass in integrated ethanol production in pulp mill shows that the type of forest biomass impacts the biogenic carbon emissions of biofuel production. The assessment of cultivated biomasses demonstrates that several selections made in the production chain significantly affect the GHG emissions of biofuels. The emissions caused by biofuel can exceed the emissions from fossil-based fuels in the short term if biomass is in part consumed in the process itself and does not end up in the final product. Including biogenic carbon and other land use carbon emissions into the carbon footprint calculations of biofuel reveals the importance of the time frame and of the efficiency of biomass carbon content utilization. As regards the climate impact of biomass energy use, the net impact on carbon stocks (in organic matter of soils and biomass), compared to the impact of the replaced energy source, is the key issue. Promoting renewable biomass regardless of biogenic GHG emissions can increase GHG emissions in the short term and also possibly in the long term.

Broad combined orange-red emissions from Eu2+- and Eu3+-doped low-silica calcium aluminosilicate glass

In this paper, a broad combined orange-red emission from Eu2+- and Eu3+-doped low-silica calcium aluminosilicate (LSCAS) glass is reported. Spectroscopic results demonstrate that it is possible to tune the emission wavelength by changing the excitation wavelength in the UV-Vis region. The color coordinates for the emission spectra were calculated, and using the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage 1931 and 1976 chromatic diagrams, it is possible to note that they are dependent on the excitation wavelength. In addition, the (u', v') color coordinates for the investigated LSCAS samples are close to the Planckian spectrum in the cold region between 2000 and 2600K. Our results show that the Eu:LSCAS system can be used in a white light phosphor when mixed in aggregate with phosphors using green-yellow luminescent ions. (c) 2012 Optical Society of America

Aportaci��n de t��cnicas geoespaciales para la determinaci��n de los niveles de referencia de la deforestaci��n y la degradaci��n de bosques en el ��mbito de proyectos REDD. an��lisis de factores de causalidad subyacentes y directos

La p��rdida de bosques en la Tierra, principalmente en ecosistemas amaz��nicos, es un factor clave en el proceso del cambio clim��tico. Para revertir esta situaci��n, los mecanismos REDD (Reducing Emission from Deforestation and forest Degradation) est��n permitiendo la implementaci��n de actividades de protecci��n del clima a trav��s de la reducci��n de emisiones por deforestaci��n evitada, seg��n los esquemas previstos en el Protocolo de Kioto. El factor t��cnico m��s cr��tico en un proyecto REDD es la determinaci��n de la l��nea de referencia de emisiones, que define la expectativa futura sobre las emisiones de CO2 de origen forestal en ausencia de esfuerzos adicionales obtenidos como consecuencia de la implementaci��n del programa REDD para frenar este tipo de emisiones. La zona del estudio se ubica en la regi��n de San Mart��n (Per��), provincia cubierta fundamentalmente por bosques tropicales cuyas tasas de deforestaci��n son de las m��s altas de la cuenca amaz��nica. En las ��ltimas d��cadas del siglo XX, la regi��n empez�� un acelerado proceso de deforestaci��n consecuencia de la integraci��n vial con el resto del pa��s y la r��pida inmigraci��n desde zonas rurales en busca de nuevas tierras agr��colas. Desde el punto de vista de la investigaci��n llevada a cabo en la tesis doctoral, se pueden destacar dos l��neas: 1. El estudio multitemporal mediante im��genes de sat��lite Landsat 5/TM con el prop��sito de calcular las p��rdidas de bosque entre per��odos. El estudio multitemporal se llev�� a cabo en el per��odo 1998-2011 utilizando im��genes Landsat 5/TM, aplicando la metodolog��a de An��lisis de Mezclas Espectrales (Spectral Mixtures Analysis), que permite descomponer la reflectancia de cada p��xel de la imagen en diferentes fracciones de mezcla espectral. En este proceso, las etapas m��s cr��ticas son el establecimiento de los espectros puros o endemembers y la recopilaci��n de librer��as espectrales adecuadas, en este caso de bosques tropicales, que permitan reducir la incertidumbre de los procesos. Como resultado de la investigaci��n se ha conseguido elaborar la l��nea de referencia de emisiones hist��rica, para el per��odo de estudio, teniendo en cuenta tanto los procesos de deforestaci��n como de degradaci��n forestal. 2. Relacionar los resultados de p��rdida de bosque con factores de causalidad directos e indirectos. La determinaci��n de los procesos de cambio de cobertura forestal utilizando t��cnicas geoespaciales permite relacionar, de manera significativa, informaci��n de los indicadores causales de dichos procesos. De igual manera, se pueden estimar escenarios futuros de deforestaci��n y degradaci��n de acuerdo al an��lisis de la evoluci��n de dichos vectores, teniendo en cuenta otros factores indirectos o subyacentes, como pueden ser los econ��micos, sociales, demogr��ficos y medioambientales. La identificaci��n de los agentes subyacentes o indirectos es una tarea m��s compleja que la de los factores end��genos o directos. Por un lado, las relaciones causa ��� efecto son mucho m��s difusas; y, por otro, los efectos pueden estar determinados por fen��menos m��s amplios, consecuencia de superposici��n o acumulaci��n de diferentes causas. A partir de los resultados de p��rdida de bosque obtenidos mediante la utilizaci��n de im��genes Landsat 5/TM, se investigaron los criterios de condicionamiento directos e indirectos que podr��an haber influido en la deforestaci��n y degradaci��n forestal en ese per��odo. Para ello, se estudiaron las series temporales, para las mismas fechas, de 9 factores directos (infraestructuras, hidrograf��a, temperatura, etc.) y 196 factores indirectos (econ��micos, sociales, demogr��ficos y ambientales, etc.) con, en principio, un alto potencial de causalidad. Finalmente se ha analizado la predisposici��n de cada factor con la ocurrencia de deforestaci��n y degradaci��n forestal por correlaci��n estad��stica de las series temporales obtenidas. ABSTRACT Forests loss on Earth, mainly in Amazonian ecosystems, is a key factor in the process of climate change. To reverse this situation, the REDD (Reducing Emission from Deforestation and forest Degradation) are allowing the implementation of climate protection activities through reducing emissions from avoided deforestation, according to the schemes under the Kyoto Protocol. Also, the baseline emissions in a REDD project defines a future expectation on CO2 emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in the absence of additional efforts as a result of REDD in order to stop these emissions. The study area is located in the region of San Mart��n (Peru), province mainly covered by tropical forests whose deforestation rates are the highest in the Amazon basin. In the last decades of the twentieth century, the region began an accelerated process of deforestation due to road integration with the rest of the country and the rapid migration from rural areas for searching of new farmland. From the point of view of research in the thesis, we can highlight two lines: 1. The multitemporal study using Landsat 5/TM satellite images in order to calculate the forest loss between periods. The multitemporal study was developed in the period 1998-2011 using Landsat 5/TM, applying the methodology of Spectral Mixture Analysis, which allows decomposing the reflectance of each pixel of the image in different fractions of mixture spectral. In this process, the most critical step is the establishment of pure spectra or endemembers spectra, and the collecting of appropriate spectral libraries, in this case of tropical forests, to reduce the uncertainty of the process. As a result of research has succeeded in developing the baseline emissions for the period of study, taking into account both deforestation and forest degradation. 2. Relate the results of forest loss with direct and indirect causation factors. Determining the processes of change in forest cover using geospatial technologies allows relating, significantly, information of the causal indicators in these processes. Similarly, future deforestation and forest degradation scenarios can be estimated according to the analysis of the evolution of these drivers, taking into account other indirect or underlying factors, such as economic, social, demographic and environmental. Identifying the underlying or indirect agents is more complex than endogenous or direct factors. On the one hand, cause - effect relationships are much more diffuse; and, second, the effects may be determined by broader phenomena, due to superposition or accumulation of different causes. From the results of forest loss obtained using Landsat 5/TM, the criteria of direct and indirect conditioning that might have contributed to deforestation and forest degradation in that period were investigated. For this purpose, temporal series, for the same dates, 9 direct factors (infrastructure, hydrography, temperature, etc.) and 196 underlying factors (economic, social, demographic and environmental) with, in principle, a high potential of causality. Finally it was analyzed the predisposition of each factor to the occurrence of deforestation and forest degradation by statistical correlation of the obtained temporal series.

RISKS TO FOOD AVAILABILITY AND ACCESS FROM CLIMATE POLICIES: AN INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF REGIONAL FOOD AVAILABILITY AND ACCESS WITH ALTERNATIVE CLIMATE MITIGATION STRATEGIES TO 2050

Although mitigating GHG emissions is necessary to reduce the overall negative climate change impacts on crop yields and agricultural production, certain mitigation measures may generate unintended consequences to food availability and access due to land use competition and economic burden of mitigation. Prior studies have examined the co-impacts on food availability and global producer prices caused by alternative climate policies. More recent studies have looked at the reduction in total caloric intake driven by both changing income and changing food prices under one specific climate policy. However, due to inelastic calorie demand, consumers��� well-being are likely further reduced by increased food expenditures. Built upon existing literature, my dissertation explores how alternative climate policy designs might adversely affect both caloric intake and staple food budget share to 2050, by using the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) and a post-estimated metric of food availability and access (FAA). My dissertation first develop a set of new metrics and methods to explore new perspectives of food availability and access under new conditions. The FAA metric consists of two components, the fraction of GDP per capita spent on five categories of staple food and total caloric intake relative to a reference level. By testing the metric against alternate expectations of the future, it shows consistent results with previous studies that economic growth dominates the improvement of FAA. As we increase our ambition to achieve stringent climate targets, two policy conditions tend to have large impacts on FAA driven by competing land use and increasing food prices. Strict conservation policies leave the competition between bioenergy and agriculture production on existing commercial land, while pricing terrestrial carbon encourages large-scale afforestation. To avoid unintended outcomes to food availability and access for the poor, pricing land emissions in frontier forests has the advantage of selecting more productive land for agricultural activities compared to the full conservation approach, but the land carbon price should not be linked to the price of energy system emissions. These results are highly relevant to effective policy-making to reduce land use change emissions, such as the Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD).

Allocating community-level payments for ecosystem services initial experiences from a REDD pilot in Tanzania

Payments for ecosystem services (PES) typically reward landowners for managing their land to provide ecosystem services that would not otherwise be provided. REDD���Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation���is a form of PES aimed at decreasing carbon emissions from forest conversion and extraction in lower-income countries. A key challenge for REDD occurs when it is implemented at the community rather than the individual landowner level. Whilst achieving this community-level reduction relies on individuals changing their interaction with the forest, incentives are not aligned explicitly at the individual level. Rather, payments are made to the community as a single entity in exchange for verified reduced forest loss, as per a PES scheme. In this paper, we explore how community level REDD has been implemented in one multiple-village pilot in Tanzania. Our findings suggest that considerable attention has been paid to monitoring, reporting, verification, and equity. Though no explicit mechanism ensures individual compliance with the group PES, the development of village level institutions, ���social fencing,��� and a shared future through equal REDD payments factor into community decisions that influence the level of community compliance that the program will eventually achieve. However, few villages allocate funds for explicit enforcement efforts to protect the forest from illegal activities undertaken by outsiders.