Histological and functional renal alterations caused by Bothrops alternatus snake venom: Expression and activity of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase

Background: Acute renal failure is a serious complication of human envenoming by Bothrops snakes. The ion pump Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase has an important role in renal tubule function, where it modulates sodium reabsorption and homeostasis of the extracellular compartment. Here, we investigated the morphological and functional renal alterations and changes in Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase expression and activity in rats injected with Bothrops alternatus snake venom. Methods: Male Wistar rats were injected with venom (0.8 mg/kg, iv.) and renal function was assessed 6.24, 48 and 72 h and 7 days post-venom. The rats were then killed and renal Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity was assayed based on phosphate release from ATP; gene and protein expressions were assessed by real time PCR and immunofluorescence microscopy, respectively. Results: Venom caused lobulation of the capillary tufts, dilation of Bowman`s capsular space. F-actin disruption in Bowman`s capsule and renal tubule brush border, and deposition of collagen around glomeruli and proximal tubules that persisted seven days after envenoming. Enhanced sodium and potassium excretion, reduced proximal sodium reabsorption, and proteinuria were observed 6 h post-venom, followed by a transient decrease in the glomerular filtration rate. Gene and protein expressions of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase alpha(1) subunit were increased 6 h post-venom, whereas Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity increased 6 h and 24 h post-venom. Conclusions: Bothrops alternatus venom caused marked morphological and functional renal alterations with enhanced Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase expression and activity in the early phase of renal damage. General significance: Enhanced Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity in the early hours after envenoming may attenuate the renal dysfunction associated with venom-induced damage. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Na+-glucose transporter-2 messenger ribonucleic acid expression in kidney of diabetic rats correlates with glycemic levels: Involvement of hepatocyte nuclear factor-1 alpha expression and activity

Mutations in Na+-glucose transporters (SGLT)-2 and hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-1 alpha genes have been related to renal glycosuria and maturity-onset diabetes of the young 3, respectively. However, the expression of these genes have not been investigated in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Here in kidney of diabetic rats, we tested the hypotheses that SGLT2 mRNA expression is altered; HNF-1 alpha is involved in this regulation; and glycemic homeostasis is a related mechanism. The in vivo binding of HNF-1 alpha into the SGLT2 promoter region in renal cortex was confirmed by chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. SGLT2 and HNF-1 alpha mRNA expression (by Northern and RT-PCR analysis) and HNF-1 binding activity of nuclear proteins (by EMSA) were investigated in diabetic rats and treated or not with insulin or phlorizin (an inhibitor of SGLT2). Results showed that diabetes increases SGLT2 and HNF-1 alpha mRNA expression (similar to 50%) and binding of nuclear proteins to a HNF-1 consensus motif (similar to 100%). Six days of insulin or phlorizin treatment restores these parameters to nondiabetic-rat levels. Moreover, both treatments similarly reduced glycemia, despite the differences in plasma insulin and urinary glucose concentrations, highlighting the plasma glucose levels as involved in the observed modulations. This study shows that SGLT2 mRNA expression and HNF-1 alpha expression and activity correlate positively in kidney of diabetic rats. It also shows that diabetes-induced changes are reversed by lowering glycemia, independently of insulinemia. Our demonstration that HNF-1 alpha binds DNA that encodes SGLT2 supports the hypothesis that HNF-1 alpha, as a modulator of SGLT2 expression, may be involved in diabetic kidney disease.

Transcriptional regulation of the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger NHE3 by chronic exposure to angiotensin II in renal epithelial cells

Angiotensin II (Ang II) exerts an acute bimodal effect on proximal tubule NHE3: while low doses stimulate the exchanger, high doses inhibit it. In the present study, we have investigated the chronic effects of Ang II on NHE3 expression and transcriptional regulation. Treatment of a tubular epithelial cell line, OKP, with Ang II 10(-11) M significantly increased NHE protein expression and mRNA levels, without evidence of bimodal effect. No change in mRNA half-life was detected, but transient transfection studies showed a significant increase in NHE3 promoter activity. Binding sites for Sp1/Egr-1 and AP2 transcription factors of the NHE3 proximal promoter were mutated and we observed that the Sp1/Egr-1 binding site integrity is necessary for Ang II stimulatory effects. Inhibition of cytochrome P450, PI3K, PKA and MAPK pathways prevented the Ang II stimulatory effect on the NHE3 promoter activity. Taking all the results together, our data reveal that chronic Ang II treatment exerts a stimulatory effect on NHE3 expression and promoter activity. The Ang II up-regulation of the NHE3 promoter activity appears to involve the Sp1/Egr-1 binding site and the interplay of several intracellular signaling pathways. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

SLC2A2 gene expression in kidney of diabetic rats is regulated by HNF-1 alpha and HNF-3 beta

We hypothesize that, in kidney of diabetic rats, hepatocyte nuclear factors (HNF-1 alpha. and HNF-3 beta) play a critical role in the overexpression of solute carrier 2A2 (SLC2A2) gene. Diabetic rats submitted or not to rapid (up to 12 h) and short-term (1, 4 and 6 days) insulin treatment were investigated. Twofold increase in GLUT2 mRNA was observed in diabetic, accompanied by significant increases in HNF-1 alpha and HNF-3 beta expression and binding activity. Additional 2-fold increase in GLUT2 mRNA and HNF-3 beta expression/activity was observed in 12-h insulin-treated rats. Six-day insulin treatment decreased GLUT2 mRNA and HNF-1 alpha expression and activity to levels of non-diabetic rats, whereas HNF-3 beta decreased to levels of non-insulin-treated diabetic rats. Our results provide evidence for a link between the overexpression of SLC2A2 gene and the transcriptional activity of HNF-1 alpha and HNF-3 beta in kidney of diabetic rats. Furthermore, recovery of SLC2A2 gene after 6-day insulin treatment also involves HNF-1 alpha and HNF-3 beta activity. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Annexin 1 mimetic peptide protects against renal ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Lead poisoning in cattle grazing pasture contaminated by industrial waste

Lead poisoning is described in a herd of 120 Nelore cows of which 35 were affected. All affected cows died after a clinical course of 2-7 d with clinical signs related to cortical neurological disturbances. The source of Pb was fumes from a car battery recycling plant which has had a failure in its filtering system. Lead concentrations in liver and kidneys of 2 cows, in soil;and in grass where the cows were held were respective 39 to 431 ppm, 147 to 431 ppm,and 245ppm. No significant gross changes were observed. Histopathology revealed of neuronal necrosis, vacuolation of the neuropil and hypertrophy of the vascular endothelium inthecerebral cortices, degeneration of the epithelial cellsofrenal proximal tubules, and hemosiderosis of kidney, spleen and liver.

Exposure of luminal membranes of LLC-PK1 cells to ANG II induces dimerization of AT(1)/AT(2) receptors to activate SERCA and to promote Ca2+ mobilization

Ferrao FM, Lara LS, Axelband F, Dias J, Carmona AK, Reis RI, Costa-Neto CM, Vieyra A, Lowe J. Exposure of luminal membranes of LLC-PK1 cells to ANG II induces dimerization of AT(1)/AT(2) receptors to activate SERCA and to promote Ca2+ mobilization. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 302: F875-F883, 2012. First published January 4, 2012; doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00381.2011.-ANG II is secreted into the lumens of proximal tubules where it is also synthesized, thus increasing the local concentration of the peptide to levels of potential physiological relevance. In the present work, we studied the effect of ANG II via the luminal membranes of LLC-PK1 cells on Ca2+-ATPase of the sarco(endo) plasmic reticulum (SERCA) and plasma membrane (PMCA). ANG II (at concentrations found in the lumen) stimulated rapid (30 s) and persistent (30 min) SERCA activity by more than 100% and increased Ca2+ mobilization. Pretreatment with ANG II for 30 min enhanced the ANG II-induced Ca2+ spark, demonstrating a positively self-sustained stimulus of Ca2+ mobilization by ANG II. ANG II in the medium facing the luminal side of the cells decreased with time with no formation of metabolites, indicating peptide internalization. ANG II increased heterodimerization of AT(1) and AT(2) receptors by 140%, and either losartan or PD123319 completely blocked the stimulation of SERCA by ANG II. Using the PLC inhibitor U73122, PMA, and calphostin C, it was possible to demonstrate the involvement of a PLC -> DAG(PMA)-> PKC pathway in the stimulation of SERCA by ANG II with no effect on PMCA. We conclude that ANG II triggers SERCA activation via the luminal membrane, increasing the Ca2+ stock in the reticulum to ensure a more efficient subsequent mobilization of Ca2+. This first report on the regulation of SERCA activity by ANG II shows a new mechanism for Ca2+ homeostasis in renal cells and also for regulation of Ca2+-modulated fluid reabsorption in proximal tubules.

Metabolomics reveals attenuation of the SLC6A20 kidney transporter in nonhuman primate and mouse models of type 2 diabetes mellitus

To enhance understanding of the metabolic indicators of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) disease pathogenesis and progression, the urinary metabolomes of well characterized rhesus macaques (normal or spontaneously and naturally diabetic) were examined. High-resolution ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with the accurate mass determination of time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to analyze spot urine samples from normal (n = 10) and T2DM (n = 11) male monkeys. The machine-learning algorithm random forests classified urine samples as either from normal or T2DM monkeys. The metabolites important for developing the classifier were further examined for their biological significance. Random forests models had a misclassification error of less than 5%. Metabolites were identified based on accurate masses (<10 ppm) and confirmed by tandem mass spectrometry of authentic compounds. Urinary compounds significantly increased (p < 0.05) in the T2DM when compared with the normal group included glycine betaine (9-fold), citric acid (2.8-fold), kynurenic acid (1.8-fold), glucose (68-fold), and pipecolic acid (6.5-fold). When compared with the conventional definition of T2DM, the metabolites were also useful in defining the T2DM condition, and the urinary elevations in glycine betaine and pipecolic acid (as well as proline) indicated defective re-absorption in the kidney proximal tubules by SLC6A20, a Na(+)-dependent transporter. The mRNA levels of SLC6A20 were significantly reduced in the kidneys of monkeys with T2DM. These observations were validated in the db/db mouse model of T2DM. This study provides convincing evidence of the power of metabolomics for identifying functional changes at many levels in the omics pipeline.

GABARAP deficiency modulates expression of NaPi-IIa in renal brush-border membranes

Renal reabsorption of inorganic phosphate (P(i)) is mainly mediated by the Na(+)-dependent P(i)-cotransporter NaPi-IIa that is expressed in the brush-border membrane (BBM) of renal proximal tubules. Regulation and apical expression of NaPi-IIa are known to depend on a network of interacting proteins. Most of the interacting partners identified so far associate with the COOH-terminal PDZ-binding motif (TRL) of NaPi-IIa. In this study GABA(A) receptor-associated protein (GABARAP) was identified as a novel interacting partner of NaPi-IIa applying a membrane yeast-two-hybrid system (MYTH 2.0) to screen a mouse kidney library with the TRL-truncated cotransporter as bait. GABARAP mRNA and protein are present in renal tubules, and the interaction of NaPi-IIa and GABARAP was confirmed by using glutathione S-transferase pulldowns from BBM and coimmunoprecipitations from transfected HEK293 cells. Amino acids 36-68 of GABARAP were identified as the determinant for the described interaction. The in vivo effects of this interaction were studied in a murine model. GABARAP(-/-) mice have reduced urinary excretion of P(i), higher Na(+)-dependent (32)P(i) uptake in BBM vesicles, and increased expression of NaPi-IIa in renal BBM compared with GABARAP(+/+) mice. The expression of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger regulatory factor (NHERF)1, an important scaffold for the apical expression of NaPi-IIa, is also increased in GABARAP(-/-) mice. The absence of GABARAP does not interfere with the regulation of the cotransporter by either parathyroid hormone or acute changes of dietary P(i) content.

Mutation in the Monocarboxylate Transporter 12 Gene Affects Guanidinoacetate Excretion but Does Not Cause Glucosuria

A heterozygous mutation (c.643C>A; p.Q215X) in the monocarboxylate transporter 12-encoding gene MCT12 (also known as SLC16A12) that mediates creatine transport was recently identified as the cause of a syndrome with juvenile cataracts, microcornea, and glucosuria in a single family. Whereas the MCT12 mutation cosegregated with the eye phenotype, poor correlation with the glucosuria phenotype did not support a pathogenic role of the mutation in the kidney. Here, we examined MCT12 in the kidney and found that it resides on basolateral membranes of proximal tubules. Patients with MCT12 mutation exhibited reduced plasma levels and increased fractional excretion of guanidinoacetate, but normal creatine levels, suggesting that MCT12 may function as a guanidinoacetate transporter in vivo. However, functional studies in Xenopus oocytes revealed that MCT12 transports creatine but not its precursor, guanidinoacetate. Genetic analysis revealed a separate, undescribed heterozygous mutation (c.265G>A; p.A89T) in the sodium/glucose cotransporter 2-encoding gene SGLT2 (also known as SLC5A2) in the family that segregated with the renal glucosuria phenotype. When overexpressed in HEK293 cells, the mutant SGLT2 transporter did not efficiently translocate to the plasma membrane, and displayed greatly reduced transport activity. In summary, our data indicate that MCT12 functions as a basolateral exit pathway for creatine in the proximal tubule. Heterozygous mutation of MCT12 affects systemic levels and renal handling of guanidinoacetate, possibly through an indirect mechanism. Furthermore, our data reveal a digenic syndrome in the index family, with simultaneous MCT12 and SGLT2 mutation. Thus, glucosuria is not part of the MCT12 mutation syndrome.

Identification of a renal-specific oxido-reductase in newborn diabetic mice

Aldose reductase (ALR2), a NADPH-dependent aldo-keto reductase (AKR), is widely distributed in mammalian tissues and has been implicated in complications of diabetes, including diabetic nephropathy. To identify a renal-specific reductase belonging to the AKR family, representational difference analyses of cDNA from diabetic mouse kidney were performed. A full-length cDNA with an ORF of 855 nt and yielding a ≈1.5-kb mRNA transcript was isolated from a mouse kidney library. Human and rat homologues also were isolated, and they had ≈91% and ≈97% amino acid identity with mouse protein. In vitro translation of the cDNA yielded a protein product of ≈33 kDa. Northern and Western blot analyses, using the cDNA and antirecombinant protein antibody, revealed its expression exclusively confined to the kidney. Like ALR2, the expression was up-regulated in diabetic kidneys. Its mRNA and protein expression was restricted to renal proximal tubules. The gene neither codistributed with Tamm–Horsfall protein nor aquaporin-2. The deduced protein sequence revealed an AKR-3 motif located near the N terminus, unlike the other AKR family members where it is confined to the C terminus. Fluorescence quenching and reactive blue agarose chromatography studies revealed that it binds to NADPH with high affinity (KdNADPH = 66.9 ± 2.3 nM). This binding domain is a tetrapeptide (Met-Ala-Lys-Ser) located within the AKR-3 motif that is similar to the other AKR members. The identified protein is designated as RSOR because it is renal-specific with properties of an oxido-reductase, and like ALR2 it may be relevant in the renal complications of diabetes mellitus.

Megalin-mediated endocytosis of transcobalamin-vitamin-B12 complexes suggests a role of the receptor in vitamin-B12 homeostasis.

Kidney cortex is a main target for circulating vitamin B12 (cobalamin) in complex with transcobalamin (TC). Ligand blotting of rabbit kidney cortex with rabbit 125I-TC-B12 and human TC-57Co-B12 revealed an exclusive binding to megalin, a 600-kDa endocytic receptor present in renal proximal tubule epithelium and other absorptive epithelia. The binding was Ca2+ dependent and inhibited by receptor-associated protein (RAP). Surface plasmon resonance analysis demonstrated a high-affinity interaction between purified rabbit megalin and rabbit TC-B12 but no measurable affinity of the vitamin complex for the homologous alpha 2-macroglobulin receptor (alpha 2MR)/low density lipoprotein receptor related protein (LRP). 125I-TC-B12 was efficiently endocytosed in a RAP-inhibitable manner in megalin-expressing rat yolk sac carcinoma cells and in vivo microperfused rat proximal tubules. The radioactivity in the tubules localized to the endocytic compartments and a similar apical distribution in the proximal tubules was demonstrated after intravenous injection of 125I-TC-B12. The TC-B12 binding sites in the proximal tubule epithelium colocalized with megalin as shown by ligand binding to cryosections of rat kidney cortex, and the binding was inhibited by anti-megalin polyclonal antibody, EDTA, and RAP. These data show a novel nutritional dimension of megalin as a receptor involved in the cellular uptake of vitamin B12. The expression of megalin in absorptive epithelia in the kidney and other tissues including yolk sac and placenta suggests a role of the receptor in vitamin B12 homeostasis and fetal vitamin B12 supply.

Activation of a 15-kDa endonuclease in hypoxia/reoxygenation injury without morphologic features of apoptosis.

Hypoxia/reoxygenation is an important cause of tissue injury in a variety of organs and is classically considered to be a necrotic form of cell death. We examined the role of endonuclease activation, considered a characteristic feature of apoptosis, in hypoxia/reoxygenation injury. We demonstrate that subjecting rat renal proximal tubules to hypoxia/reoxygenation results in DNA strand breaks and DNA fragmentation (both by an in situ technique and by agarose gel electrophoresis), which precedes cell death. Hypoxia/reoxygenation resulted in an increase in DNA-degrading activity with an apparent molecular mass of 15 kDa on a substrate gel. This DNA-degrading activity was entirely calcium dependent and was blocked by the endonuclease inhibitor aurintricarboxylic acid. The protein extract from tubules subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation cleaved intact nuclear DNA obtained from normal proximal tubules into small fragments, which further supports the presence of endonuclease activity. Despite unequivocal evidence of endonuclease activation, the morphologic features of apoptosis, including chromatin condensation, were not observed by light and electron microscopy. Endonuclease inhibitors, aurintricarboxylic acid and Evans blue, provided complete protection against DNA damage induced by hypoxia/reoxygenation but only partial protection against cell death. Taken together, our data provide strong evidence for a role of endonuclease activation as an early event, which is entirely responsible for the DNA damage and partially responsible for the cell death that occurs during hypoxia/reoxygenation injury. Our data also indicate that in hypoxia/reoxygenation injury endonuclease activation and DNA fragmentation occur without the morphological features of apoptosis.

The mouse sulfate anion transporter gene Sat1 (Slc26a1): Cloning, tissue distribution, gene structure, functional characterization, and transcriptional regulation by thyroid hormone

Sulfate (SO42-) is required for bone/cartilage formation and cellular metabolism. sat-1 is a SO42- anion transporter expressed on basolateral membranes of renal proximal tubules, and is suggested to play an important role in maintaining SO42- homeostasis. As a first step towards studying its tissue-specific expression, hormonal regulation, and in preparation for the generation of knockout mice, we have cloned and characterized the mouse sat-1 cDNA (msat-1), gene (sat1; Slc26a1) and promoter region. msat-1 encodes a 704 amino acid protein (75.4 kDa) with 12 putative transmembrane domains that induce SO42- (also oxalate and chloride) transport in Xenopus oocytes. msat-1 mRNA was expressed in kidney, liver, cecum, calvaria, brain, heart, and skeletal muscle. Two distinct transcripts were expressed in kidney and liver due to alternative utilization of the first intron, corresponding to an internal portion of the 5'-untranslated region. The Sa1 gene (similar to6 kb) consists of 4 exons. Its promoter is similar to52% G+C rich and contains a number of well-characterized cis-acting elements, including sequences resembling hormone responsive elements T3REs and VDREs. We demonstrate that Sat1 promoter driven basal transcription in OK cells was stimulated by tri-iodothyronine. Site-directed mutagenesis identified an imperfect T3RE at -454-bp in the Sat1 promoter to be responsible for this activity. This study represents the first characterization of the structure and regulation of the Sat1 gene encoding a SO42-/chloride/oxalate anion transporter.

Renal endothelial dysfunction and impaired autoregulation after ischemia-reperfusion injury result from excess nitric oxide

Endothelial dysfunction in ischemic acute renal failure (IARF) has been attributed to both direct endothelial injury and to altered endothelial nitric oxide synthase ( eNOS) activity, with either maximal upregulation of eNOS or inhibition of eNOS by excess nitric oxide ( NO) derived from iNOS. We investigated renal endothelial dysfunction in kidneys from Sprague-Dawley rats by assessing autoregulation and endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation 24 h after unilateral ( U) or bilateral ( B) renal artery occlusion for 30 (U30, B30) or 60 min (U60, B60) and in sham-operated controls. Although renal failure was induced in all degrees of ischemia, neither endothelial dysfunction nor altered facilitation of autoregulation by 75 pM angiotensin II was detected in U30, U60, or B30 kidneys. Baseline and angiotensin II-facilitated autoregulation were impaired, methacholine EC50 was increased, and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor ( EDHF) activity was preserved in B60 kidneys. Increasing angiotensin II concentration restored autoregulation and increased renal vascular resistance ( RVR) in B60 kidneys; this facilitated autoregulation, and the increase in RVR was abolished by 100 mu M furosemide. Autoregulation was enhanced by N-omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester. Peri-ischemic inhibition of inducible NOS ameliorated renal failure but did not prevent endothelial dysfunction or impaired autoregulation. There was no significant structural injury to the afferent arterioles with ischemia. These results suggest that tubuloglomerular feedback is preserved in IARF but that excess NO and probably EDHF produce endothelial dysfunction and antagonize autoregulation. The threshold for injury-producing, detectable endothelial dysfunction was higher than for the loss of glomerular filtration rate. Arteriolar endothelial dysfunction after prolonged IARF is predominantly functional rather than structural.