64 resultados para Kunitz


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本文通过根农杆菌(Agrobacterium tumfaciens)介导法分别将Signal和KDEL修饰的豇豆胰蛋白酶抑制剂(Cowpea trypsin inhibitor, CpTI)基因、豌豆外源凝集素(Pea lectin, P-Lec)和大豆Kunitz型胰蛋白酶抑制剂(Soybean Kunitz typsin inhibitor, SKTI)双价抗虫基因、雪花莲外源凝集素(Galanthus nivals agglutinin, GNA)基因以及高效复合启动子OM控制的苏云金杆菌(Bacillus thuringiensis, B.t.)杀虫毒蛋白基因导入了陆地棉(Gossypium hirsutum L.)栽培品种新陆早1号、新陆中2号、晋棉7号、冀合321、辽9和晋棉12号,并获得了大批转基因再生植株。 实验中对影响棉花转化和再生的一些条件进行了研究,从根农杆菌培养、棉花无菌苗的制备、转化操作和共培养等方面对转化条件进行了探讨;从激素配化、植物表达载体、外植体类型、基因型等方面对抗性愈伤组织的诱导进行了摸索;从激素、从碳源、培养容器、pH值、抗褐化剂及固化剂的选择等方面对影响植株再生的条件进行了优化。 本文开创性地采用嫁接代替移栽,从而极大地提高了转化植株定植成活率,缩短了缓苗时间并增加了转化植株当代的繁殖系数。 在建立了一套较为高效的陆地棉转化及再生系统基础上,本文还进行了其它转化方式和转化体系的初步探讨。利用棉花幼嫩种子无菌苗下胚轴作为外植体,通过改变愈伤组织诱导培养基配方面提高胚性愈伤组织的诱导频率,进而得到更多的体细胞胚状和再生植株,缩短再生周期;尝试用胚性愈伤组织作为外植体的根农杆菌介导法转化,确定了一些与转化有关的条件;建立了一套棉花茎尖培养程序,为运用基因枪法轰击棉花茎尖分生组织或用根农杆菌直接转化茎尖分生组织,以克服根农杆菌转化棉花时体胚发生的基因型局限开辟了一条新途径。 本文还建立了一种快速鉴定转化植株后代的方法。这一简便方法还有助于进行转基因棉纯合系的筛选以及外源基因的遗传稳定性研究。 转基因植株经Npt-II ELISA、PCR、PCR Southern 检测证明外源抗虫基因CpTI、SKTI、P-lec、GNA以及B.t.基因已存在于转化植株基因组内。修饰的CpTI转基因植株抗棉铃虫(Heliothis armigera Hubner)试验结果表明,其杀虫效果显著优于前期未修饰的CpTI转化植株。P-lec和SKTI双价转基因植株抗棉铃虫试验结果表明,转基因植株对棉铃虫幼虫具有较强的杀虫活力。 目前,已获得转以上抗虫基因棉花T1代植株。为今后进一步将植物基因工程技术应用于棉花遗传改良打下了基础。

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目的:从金环蛇蛇毒中分离纯化名为bungaruskunin 1的一种新型胰蛋白酶抑制剂,并从其毒腺的cDNA文库中克隆出该胰蛋白酶抑制剂的cDNA全序列.方法:通过Sephadex G-50, CM-Sephadex C-25, HPLC, RP-HPLC (C4 column)方法分离纯化bungaruskunin 1.样品的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂活性则是在室温条件下50mmol·L-1 Tris-HCl, pH 7.8的缓冲液中通过对显色底物的水解抑制作用来检测的.金环蛇毒腺RNA用TRIZOL提取,并用SMARTM PCR cDNA synthesis kit (Clontech)建成cDNA文库.根据其信号肽的保守区域合成引物从该文库中扩增出bungaruskunin 1的cDNA全序列,进行胶回收,酶连到pMDl8-T载体中转化测序.结果:bungaruskunin 1的前体由83个氨基酸组成,其中信号肽含有24个氨基酸,成熟肽即:bungaruskunin 1合有59个氨基酸.bungaruskunin 1的cDNA序列与从红腹伊澳蛇Pseudechis porphyriacus中分离纯化得到的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂blackelin的cDNA序列的相似性高达64%.bungaruskunin 1是一种含有保守Kunitz端的Kuntiz蛋白酶抑制剂家族的一员,从而能够抑制蛋白酶和弹性酶的活性.在cDNA文库中,我们同时还筛选到了2种新的β-bungarotoxin B链的序列.结论:这些发现很好地证明了蛇中Kunitz/BPTI胰蛋白酶抑制剂和毒性神经的家族可能起源于共同的祖先.

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Snake venom Kunitz/BPTI members are good tools for understanding of structure-functional relationship between serine proteases and their inhibitors. A novel dual Kunitz/BPTI serine proteinase inhibitor named OH-TCI (trypsin- and chymotrypsin-dual inhibito

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By Sephadex G-50 gel filtration, cation-exchange CM-Sephadex C-25 chromatography and reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), a novel serine protease inhibitor named bungaruskunin was purified and characterized from venom of Bungarus fasciatus. Its cDNA was also cloned from the cDNA library of B. fasciatus venomous glands. The predicted precursor is composed of 83 amino acid (aa) residues including a 24-aa signal peptide and a 59-aa mature bungaruskunin. Bungaruskunin showed maximal similarity (64%) with the predicted serine protease inhibitor blackelin deduced from the cDNA sequence of the red-bellied black snake Pseudechis porphyriacus. Bungaruskunin is a Kunitz protease inhibitor with a conserved Kunitz domain and could exert inhibitory activity against trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase. By screening the cDNA library, two new B chains of beta-bungarotoxin are also identified. The overall structures of bungaruskunin and beta -bungarotoxin B chains are similar; especially they have highly conserved signal peptide sequences. These findings strongly suggest that snake Kunitz/BPTI protease inhibitors and neurotoxic homologs may have originated from a common ancestor. (c) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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蛇毒和蜂毒是提供药理学活性分子的丰富来源,它们富含肽和蛋白,包括一 些酶类和毒素。 丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂广泛存在于动物、植物和微生物体内,参与许多重要的 生理过程,如血液凝集、纤维蛋白溶解、细胞凋亡、发育以及炎症反应和补体活 化等(van Gent D. et al., 2003)。通过凝胶过滤、离子交换和反向高压液相色谱, 我们从金环蛇毒液中纯化得到一种天然的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂,命名为 bungaruskunin。并且从该蛇的毒腺cDNA 文库中克隆到了它的核苷酸序列。 bungaruskunin 预测的前体由83 个氨基酸组成,包括含有24 个氨基酸的信号肽 和含有59 个氨基酸的成熟肽。它与一种由红腹伊澳蛇(Pseudechis porphyriacus) 的cDNA 预测到的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂blackelin 具有最大相似性,达64%。 Bungaruskunin 是一种Kunitz 型的蛋白酶抑制剂,具有一个保守的Kunitz 结构域, 能够抑制胰蛋白酶、胰凝乳蛋白酶和弹性蛋白酶。通过对金环蛇毒腺cDNA 文库 的筛选,我们还得到了另外两条β-bungarotoxin B 链,Bungaruskunin 的整体结 构与β-bungarotoxin B 链相似,特别是它们都具有高度保守的信号肽序列。这些 发现强烈地表明蛇毒Kunitz/BPTI 蛋白酶抑制剂与神经毒性的类似物可能起源于 共同的祖先。 肥大细胞脱粒肽是从膜翅目昆虫的毒液中鉴别出的一个小肽家族,是一种具 有潜在的药物治疗作用的诱导活性分子(Xueqing Xu et al., 2006)。来源于蜂类的 缓激肽样的类似物vespakinin 家族是一种具有调节和激素功能的活性成分,与哺 乳动物和两栖动物的缓激肽类似(Nakajima T., 1984)。本研究对三种胡蜂的 毒液进行了一系列的活性检测,发现黑尾胡蜂的蜂毒对白色念珠菌Candida albicans 和金黄色葡萄球菌 Staphylococcus aureus 有抑制作用。凹纹胡蜂和黑尾 胡蜂的蜂毒具有微弱的磷酯酶A2 活性。通过凝胶过滤和反向高压液相色谱,没 有得到相关的活性组分。通过对三种胡蜂毒腺cDNA 文库的筛选,我们得到了2 条来源于黑尾胡蜂的核苷酸序列,Blast 分析表明,其中一条编码类似肥大细胞 脱粒肽,但未克隆到全长,序列比对结果显示其与来源于大胡蜂(Vespa magnifica) 的Mastoparan-like peptide 12c precursor(GenBank accession A0SPI0)的核苷酸序 列相似性达98%(Xueqing Xu et al., 2006);另一条编码缓激肽类似物,命名为 Hw-bradykinin,序列比对结果显示其与来源于大胡蜂(Vespa magnifica)的 vespakinin-M precursor(GenBank accessionABG75944)的核苷酸相似率达96% (Zouhong Zhou et al., 2006)。

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在本研究中我们首次从雨蛙皮肤分泌液中分离得到了一种神经毒素(命名为Anntoxin)和一种干细胞自我更新支持因子(命名为AnSF)。随后,我们通过构建雨蛙皮肤cDNA 文库,利用特异引物筛选到Anntoxin 和AnSF 的cDNA 编码序列,前者的Gene Bank 登录号为FJ598043,后者还在等待分配登录号。Anntoxin 具有60 个氨基酸,是一种Kunitz 类型的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂,构建Anntoxin 的3D-NMR 溶液结构,证实Anntoxin 不同于有三对二硫键(键组合模式:1-6,2-4,3-5)的Kunitz 类型丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂,它只有两对二硫键(组合模式:1-4,2-3)。AnSF 具有123 个氨基酸,在C 端具有和Calmadolin 同源的两个EF 手指结构,能够支持人类胚胎干细胞(hESC)和猴神经干细胞(rNSC)的自我更新。为了进行Anntoxin 的生物活性和结构分析,我们在体外成功表达了 Anntoxin,获得了大量的重组Anntoxin(rAnntoxin)。经过生物活性分析, rAnntoxin 和天然分离到的Anntoxin 生物活性相当,都具有很强的胰蛋白酶抑制剂活性。Anntoxin 是一种Kunitz 类型的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂,和来源于芋螺(Cone Snail)的神经毒素Conkunitzin-S1,黑色眼镜蛇毒液(black cobra, Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis)的树突毒素δ-DaTX 或蛋白酶抑制剂K 分别具有32.8%和36.7%的相同序列,和鱼类(fish)来源的Stonustoxin 也有一定的同源性。利用膜片钳技术分别检测Anntoxin 对大鼠背根神经节(rat DRG)上Na+通道,K+通道,Ca2+通道的作用,结果证明Anntoxin 对河豚毒素敏感(TTX-S)的钠离子通道(Nav)有较强的抑制活性,对 K+通道,Ca2+通道作用不明显。随后我们在非洲爪蟾卵母细胞上表达几种典型和常用于测试对亚型K+通道作用的Kv1.1,Kv1.2,Kv1.3,Kv2.1 和 Kv4.2,Kv4.3,Anntoxin 对这些亚型K+通道上的K+电流都没有明显影响。我们成功构建了Anntoxin 的3D-NMR 溶液结构(NMR 号:PDB ID 2KCR, BMRB ID 16094),证实Anntoxin 具有典型的Kunitz 结构,由反向平行的 β–折叠片和α–螺旋及转角组成梨形结构。利用RT-PCR,WesternBlot 以及 ELISA 技术,发现在皮肤、脑、肝、胃和肠中都能检测Anntoxin mRNA 转录,但只在皮肤、脑、肝和胃中有蛋白表达,表达量分别为29.5、5.39、 4.80 和2.02 微克/克鲜重,可以看出Anntoxin 在皮肤中大量表达,是皮肤分泌液中非常重要的组成部分。因为皮肤是雨蛙接触外界的第一屏障,雨蛙的生存环境中存在很多潜在威胁,比如微生物、吸血昆虫、鸟类、爬行动物、哺乳动物等,所以Anntoxin 有可能是雨蛙适应环境的重要化学武器,于是我们测试了Anntoxin 对甜菜夜蛾幼虫(Laphygma exigua Hubner)、水蛇(Enhydris plumbea)、鹌鹑(Coturnix coturnix)、昆明小鼠(Kunming mice)的急性毒性,其LD50 分别为50,450,2500 和3000 微克/千克体重,说明在华西雨蛙皮肤中大量表达的Anntoxin 对几类潜在天敌确实有较强的杀灭作用。为了检测AnSF 的生物学活性,我们在体外成功表达了AnSF,获得了大量rAnSF。设计三个浓度梯度10、100 和500ng/ml,把AnSF 和hESC 共培养,发现在10~100 ng/ml 浓度时对hESC 的自我更新有支持作用;设计三个浓度梯度10、100 和500ng/ml,把AnSF 和rNSC 共培养,发现在 10ng/ml 时对rNSC 的自我更新有较强的支持作用。在超过500ng/ml 高浓度时,AnSF 对hESC 和rNSC 都有明显的细胞毒性作用,对rNSC 的毒性作用更明显。利用RT-PCR 技术,我们检测了雨蛙的皮肤、肌肉、肝脏、胰脏、胃、肠、心脏和脑,AnSF 只在皮肤中有少量表达。这表明AnSF 可能只参与雨蛙皮肤干细胞库的维持,保持皮肤内环境稳定,因为蛙类的皮肤细胞要负责产生大量活性物质参与先天免疫和抗氧化等重要的生理活动,需要经常更新,而AnSF 的存在可能保证雨蛙皮肤干细胞库容量稳定,不断分化出各种成熟的皮肤细胞来使皮肤能够得到足够和及时的更新,保证其功能的正常行使。所以AnSF 是维持华西雨蛙皮肤内环境稳定的重要物质。

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在长期的吸血进化过程中,吸血节肢动物在唾液腺中形成了一系列有助于适应吸 血生存的活性物质,这些物质包括血管舒张分子、血小板聚集抑制分子、抗凝血分子 和其它相互作用的分子。此外,为了得到洁净的血液和防止在吸血过程中被病原微生 物感染,吸血节肢动物在其唾液腺中形成了许多防御物质以保护自身和宿主,这些物 质包括抗菌肽和蛋白酶抑制剂等。因此,研究吸血节肢动物的唾液腺重要活性物质和 转录体组学有助于弄清其吸血机制。 姚虻(Tabancus yao Macquart)是我国特有的牛虻,其雌性在产卵前需要吸食大 型哺乳动物的血液以促使卵的发育。我们希望通过对姚虻唾液腺重要活性物质和转录 体组学的研究揭示姚虻成功从宿主获得血餐的分子机制,找到具有药用前景的活性物 质和为控制该虫及其传播的疾病的提供理论基础。 首先,我们对其唾液腺匀浆物活性进行了系统分析,发现姚虻唾液腺匀浆物具有 如下活性:有抗金黄色葡萄球菌活性,并且对大肠杆菌、白色念球菌和枯草杆菌都有 效;能够抑制ADP 诱导的洗涤和富血浆血小板的聚集;能够凝集兔红细胞、能够抑制 丝氨酸蛋白酶对小肽底物的水解、具有对纤维蛋白原的水解活性(金属蛋白酶)、具 有过敏原活性、能够促进肥大细胞脱粒和组氨释放;反复检测而没有发现的活性如下: 磷脂酶A2(PLA2)活性、溶血活性、血浆凝固活性、体外抗补体、血管生长促进与抑制 活性、对小鼠脾细胞因子分泌的促进和抑制活性、抗肿瘤细胞HepG2 的生长活性。 以来源姚虻唾液腺的mRNA为材料,我们成功构建了丰度为1x106的姚虻唾液腺 cDNA文库。通过对400个随机克隆的测序,我们得到了编码23种保守蛋白,44种分泌 蛋白和5种功能未知的蛋白。44种分泌蛋白中比较重要的分别是:20种抗原5相关蛋白、 2种α淀粉酶、2种麦芽糖酶、2种attactins抗菌蛋白以及血管舒张肽、过氧化物酶、 抗菌肽、透明质酸酶、mucin样蛋白和脯氨酸丰富蛋白。另外,一些不知道功能的分 泌肽也被发现,这其中包括四个与Hybomitra bimaculata的分泌肽相似性达47-82%的 多肽,这些信息有助于我们发现牛虻唾液腺活性物质和加快从知道部分氨基酸序列的 蛋白的鉴定速度,加快对姚虻从宿主获得血餐的分子机制的诠释速度。 通过分子筛、高压液相色谱等程序,我们从姚虻唾液腺中得到了一个由55 个氨 基酸组成,分子量为6 kDa,含有3 对二硫键的Kunitz 型丝氨基酸蛋白酶抑制剂TYTI。 该抑制剂与Anemonia sulcata 的蛋白酶抑制剂AsKC3 和SA5II 的成熟肽部分的同源 性达66%;并且该抑制剂,对热相对稳定;对凝乳酶、弹性蛋白酶、凝血酶、胰酶等 都有抑制作用,对胰酶的抑制常数为2.586x10-4M 。 通过分子筛、高压液相色谱等程序,我们从姚虻唾液腺中得到了一分子量为7 kDa,由65 个氨基酸组成且含有3 对二硫键的防御素Taymin,它与长角血蜱的防御素的相 似性达43%,但它的第二个半胱氨酸比长角血蜱的半胱氨酸靠前一个氨基酸。该抗菌 肽对大肠杆菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、枯草芽孢杆菌和白色念球菌的最小抑菌浓度分别是: 160、80、140 和120μg/mL。 通过与分离丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂相同的生化分离手段,从姚虻唾液腺中得到一种 红细胞凝集素样活性物质TYML1,其能凝集原始和经胰酶、链霉蛋白酶和弹性蛋白酶 处理的A、B、O 和AB 血型的人、兔、绵羊、大鼠、小鼠、鹌鹑的红细胞, 对链霉蛋 白酶处理的鹌鹑红细胞的凝集效价比正常下降了8 倍;对热、酸、碱处理和蛋白酶降 解稳定;具有Ca2+依赖性,活性能为半乳糖胺和胎球蛋白所完全抑制。 通过分子筛、阴离子交换、高压液相色谱等程序,我们从姚虻唾液腺中分离得到 了一分子量为26 kDa,由234 个氨基酸组成,含有10 个半胱氨酸的血小板聚集抑制剂 Macquaritin-2,它与报道的所有血小板聚集抑制剂均不具有同源性,但是与双翅目昆 虫唾液腺过敏原却有一定的同源性(25%-33%),对其血小板聚集抑制活性研究发现:其 能抑制胰酶、花生四烯酸、Stejnulxin、TMVA、ADP、U46619 等激动剂诱导的血小板 聚集;血小板膜结合试验表明:其能与血小板细胞膜结合,故该血小板聚集抑制剂可能 通过作用血小板上的受体来阻止激动剂诱导血小板聚集。 通过分子筛、阳离子交换、高压液相色谱等程序,我们从姚虻唾液腺中分离得到 分子量为24-30 kDa 的两个血小板聚集抑制剂Macquaritin-3 和Macquaritin-1,它 们的N 端16 个氨基酸分别是V N Y C R L P C R G C D Y H V 和 V A V D Y L G L P G R G Y H V。通过PCR, Macquaritin-3 的核苷酸序列被得到,其推导蛋白的成熟区 和信号肽分别含有232 和23 个氨基酸。利用根据Macquaritin-1 的N 端氨基酸设计 的简并引物扩到含有V A V D Y L G L P 序列的两组核苷酸序列。它们与报道的所有 血小板聚集抑制剂均不具有同源性,但是其与双翅目昆虫的唾液腺抗原5 相关蛋白却 有一定的同源性。将所有血小板抑制剂及其相关序列和通过cDNA 文库筛选得到的抗 原5 相关序列进行分析,发现它们有很高的相似性,这种相似性介于33.3%-93.0%间, 且大部分高于50%。另外,两个血小板聚集抑制剂和一个可能的血小板抑制剂分别处 于这些抗原5 相关蛋白进化树的三个簇中。因此,我们推测这些过抗原5 相关蛋白可 能都具有血小板抑制剂活性。

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扇贝养殖是我国重要的海水养殖产业,然而自1997 年以来,养殖扇贝陆续爆发的大规模死亡,不但造成了巨大的经济损失,而且严重影响了该产业的健康发展。丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制因子及丝氨酸蛋白酶在无脊椎动物的免疫应答中起着核心作用,它们的协同作用直接导致外界病源入侵的信号转导和级联放大,并进一步激活一系列防御体系,如黑化反应、血液凝结和抗菌肽的合成等。因此,克隆扇贝参与免疫防御的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂基因并对其功能进行研究,将有助于进一步研究扇贝的免疫防御机制,丰富和发展无脊椎动物免疫学的内容。 运用大规模EST技术和RACE技术从栉孔扇贝中克隆出一个Kazal型丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂基因,定名为CfKZSPI。该基因cDNA序列全长1788bp,其中5' 非编码区(Untranslated Region, UTR)为97 bp,3' UTR161 bp,有一个典型的多聚腺苷酸信号序列(AATAAA)和一个ploy A 尾巴,开放阅读框(Open Reading Frame, ORF)含有1530 bp,编码509 个氨基酸残基。对其推测氨基酸序列进行分析,发现其中包括22个氨基酸残基组成的信号肽序列和12个Kazal型丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂结构域。采用QRT-PCR(quantitative real time PCR)对鳗弧菌浸泡刺激后栉孔扇贝血淋巴中CfKZSPI 的 mRNA表达量进行了检测,发现其mRNA 的表达量在鳗弧菌刺激后3h明显上升,达到空白组的43.6倍;然后在6h时有所下降,为空白组的15.0倍;随着菌刺激时间的增长,CfKZSPI基因的 mRNA 表达量急剧增加,在刺激后8h,12h,24h分别达到空白组的174.1,207.8,675.4倍。统计分析发现3h(P=0.019<0.05)和12h(P=0.020<0.05)时,CfKZSPI基因mRNA表达量与空白组差异均显著。为了研究栉孔扇贝CfKZSPI的蛋白活性,将其第十二个结构域克隆到pET-32a(+)载体中,转化大肠杆菌Rosetta-gami(DE3)表达菌株,获得可溶性表达的蛋白rCfKZSPI-12,对其进行抑制蛋白酶活性的分析,发现其对胰蛋白酶有很强的抑制活性,而对凝血酶没有抑制活性。当rCfKZSPI-12与胰蛋白酶分子比率为1:1时,约90%的蛋白酶活性被抑制。运用狄更斯作图法研究rCfKZSPI-12对胰蛋白酶的抑制能力,结果发现其对胰蛋白酶的抑制常数为173 nmol L-1。 采用同样方法从海湾扇贝cDNA文库中克隆出一个Kunitz型丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂基因,定名为Aikunitz。该基因全长632 bp,其中5' UTR 为105 bp,3' UTR 为 245 bp,有一个典型的多聚腺苷酸信号序列(AATAAA)和一个ploy A 尾巴,ORF 含有282 bp,编码93 个氨基酸残基。推测的氨基酸序列N末端有一个20个氨基酸残基组成的信号肽序列,成熟蛋白包括一个Kunitz型丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂结构域。采用QRT-PCR对鳗弧菌和藤黄微球菌感染后海湾扇贝血淋巴中Aikunitz 的mRNA的表达量进行了检测,结果发现其在鳗弧菌刺激后3h到9h持续上升,9h时表达量为PBS对照组的4.49倍(P=0.008<0.05),然后开始下降,在72h时表达量为对照组的0.24倍(P=0.021<0.05);而在藤黄微球菌刺激后3h到12h其表达量上升,其中6h时为空白组的5.95倍(P=0.0004<0.01);12h以后迅速下降,其中24h的表达量为对照组的0.38倍(P=0.028<0.05)。将Aikunitz基因编码的成熟蛋白按照重组CfKZSPI-12的方法进行重组表达,并对重组蛋白进行抑制蛋白酶和抑菌活性分析。结果发现其对胰蛋白酶和弹性蛋白酶两种丝氨酸蛋白酶都没有抑制作用。抑菌实验同样发现,重组Aikunitz 对供试的革兰氏阳性菌藤黄微球菌和革兰氏阴性菌鳗弧菌和大肠杆菌都不显示明显抑菌活性。

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Eppin has two potential protease inhibitory domains: a whey acid protein or four disulfide core domain and a Kunitz domain. The protein is also reported to have antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria. Eppin and its whey acid protein and Kunitz domains were expressed in Escherichia coli and their ability to inhibit proteases and kill bacteria compared. The Kunitz domain inhibits elastase (EC 3.4.21.37) to a similar extent as intact eppin, whereas the whey acid protein domain has no such activity. None of these fragments inhibits trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4) or chymotrypsin (EC 3.4.21.1) at the concentrations tested. In a colony forming unit assay, both domains have some antibacterial activity against E. coli, but this was not to the same degree as intact eppin or the two domains together. When bacterial respiratory electron transport was measured using a 2,3-bis(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide assay, eppin and its domains caused an increase in the rate of respiration. This suggests that the mechanism of cell killing may be partly through the permeablization of the bacterial inner membrane, resulting in uncoupling of respiratory electron transport and consequent collapse of the proton motive force. Thus, we conclude that although both of eppin’s domains are involved in the protein’s antibacterial activity, only the Kunitz domain is required for selective protease inhibition.

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Protease inhibitors are found in many venoms and evidence suggests that they occur widely in amphibian skin secretions. Kunitz inhibitors have been found in the skin secretions of bombinid toads and ranid frogs, Kazal inhibitors in phyllomedusine frogs and Bowman–Birk inhibitors in ranid frogs. Selective protease inhibitors could have important applications as therapeutics in the treatment of diseases in which discrete proteases play an aetiologcal role. Here we have examined the skin secretion of the edible frog, Rana esculenta, for protease inhibitors using trypsin as a model. HPLC fractions of secretions were screened for inhibitory activity using a chromogenic substrate as reporter. Three major peptides were resolved with trypsin inhibitory activity in HPLC fractions — one was a Kunitz-type inhibitor, a second was a Bowman–Birk inhibitor but the third represented a novel class of trypsin inhibitor in European frog skin. Analysis of the peptide established the structure of a 17-mer with an N-terminal Ala (A) residue and a C-terminal Cys (C) residue with a single disulphide bridge between Cys 12 and 17. Peptide AC-17 resembled a typical “Rana box” antimicrobial peptide but while it was active against Escherichia coli (MIC 30 µM) it was devoid of activity against Staphylococcus aureus and of haemolytic activity. In contrast, the peptide was a potent inhibitor of trypsin with a Ki of 5.56 µM. AC-17 represents the prototype of a novel trypsin inhibitor from the skin secretion of a European ranid frog that may target a trypsin-like protease present on the surface of Gram-negative bacteria.

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The chemical complexity of the defensive skin secretion of the red-eyed leaf frog, (Agalychnis callidryas), has not been elucidated in detail. During a systematic study of the skin secretion peptidomes of phyllomedusine frogs, we discovered a novel Kazal-type protein with potent trypsin inhibitory activity (Ki = 1.9 nM) that displays the highest degree of structural similarity with Kazal proteins from bony fishes. The protein was located in reverse-phase HPLC fractions following a screen of such for trypsin inhibition and subsequent partial Edman degradation of the peak active fraction derived the sequence: ATKPR-QYIVL-PRILRPV-GT. The molecular mass of the major component in this fraction was established by MALDI-TOF MS as 5893.09 Da. This partial sequence (assuming blank cycles to be Cys residues) was used to design a degenerate primer pool that was employed successfully in RACE-PCR to clone homologous precursor-encoding cDNA that encoded a mature Kazal protein of 52 amino acid residues with a computed molecular mass of 5892.82 Da. The protein was named A. callidryas Kazal trypsin inhibitor (ACKTI). BLAST analysis revealed that ACKTI contained a canonical Kazal motif (C-x(7)-C-x(6)-Y-x(3)-C-x(2,3)-C). This novel amphibian skin Kazal trypsin inhibitor adds to the spectrum of trypsin inhibitors of Kunitz- and Bowman Birk-type reported from this amphibian source.

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In this study, we investigate the skin secretion of the Madagascan Tomato Frog, Dyscophus guineti, which is characterized by its peculiarly adhesive and viscous nature, with a view toward the function of the member of the Kunitz/bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor family (BPTI) it is known to contain. Using “shotgun” cloning of a skin secretion-derived cDNA library, we obtained the full-length sequence of the respective precursor that encodes this trypsin inhibitor. Furthermore, we demonstrated that this enzyme has inhibitory activity against trypsin, but not against thrombin, and also has no antimicrobial activity. Moreover, we confirm that it appears to be the only bioactive peptide in the skin secretion of this species. Using these observations, we attempt to posit a role for this inhibitor. In particular, we hypothesize that the trypsin inhibitor in D. guineti (and possibly other microhylid frogs) maintains the soluble state of the skin secretion during storage in the glands. Upon discharge of the secretion, the trypsin inhibitor, which occurs in low concentrations, can no longer prevent the polymerisation process of other yet unidentified skin proteins, thereby resulting in the conversion of the secretion to its final glue-like state. Thus, the major defensive value of the skin secretion appears to be mechanical, impeding ingestion through a combination of adhesion and the body inflation typical for some microhylid frogs rather than chemical through antimicrobial activity or toxicity.

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One novel Kunitz BPTI-like peptide designated as BBPTI-1, with chymotrypsin inhibitory activity was identified from the venom of Burmese Daboia russelii siamensis. It was purified by three steps of chromatography including gel filtration, cation exchange and reversed phase. A partial N-terminal sequence of BBPTI-1, HDRPKFCYLPADPGECLAHMRSF was obtained by automated Edman degradation and a Ki value of 4.77. nM determined. Cloning of BBPTI-1 including the open reading frame and 3' untranslated region was achieved from cDNA libraries derived from lyophilized venom using a 3' RACE strategy. In addition a cDNA sequence, designated as BBPTI-5, was also obtained. Alignment of cDNA sequences showed that BBPTI-5 exhibited an identical sequence to BBPTI-1 cDNA except for an eight nucleotide deletion in the open reading frame. Gene variations that represented deletions in the BBPTI-5 cDNA resulted in a novel protease inhibitor analog. Amino acid sequence alignment revealed that deduced peptides derived from cloning of their respective precursor cDNAs from libraries showed high similarity and homology with other Kunitz BPTI proteinase inhibitors. BBPTI-1 and BBPTI-5 consist of 60 and 66 amino acid residues respectively, including six conserved cysteine residues. As these peptides have been reported to have influence on the processes of coagulation, fibrinolysis and inflammation, their potential application in biomedical contexts warrants further investigation. © 2013 Elsevier Inc.

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Tese de Doutoramento, Biologia (Biologia Celular e Molecular), 18 de Novembro de 2013, Universidade dos Açores.

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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The serine and cysteine peptidase inhibitor, BbCI, isolated from Bauhinia bauhinioides seeds, is similar to the classical plant Kunitz inhibitor, STI, but lacks disulphide bridges and methionine residues. BbCI blocks activity of the serine peptidases, elastase (K(iapp) 5.3 nM) and cathepsin G (K(iapp) 160.0 nM), and the cysteine peptidase cathepsin L (K(iapp) 0.2 nM). These three peptidases play important roles in the inflammatory process. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We measured the effects of BbCI on paw oedema and on leucocyte accumulation in pleurisy, both induced by carrageenan. Leucocyte-endothelial cell interactions in scrotal microvasculature in Wistar rats were investigated using intravital microscopy. Cytokine levels in pleural exudate and serum were measured by ELISA. KEY RESULTS Pretreatment of the animals with BbCI (2.5 mg.kg(-1)), 30 min before carrageenan-induced inflammation, effectively reduced paw oedema and bradykinin release, neutrophil migration into the pleural cavity. The number of rolling, adhered and migrated leucocytes at the spermatic fascia microcirculation following carrageenan injection into the scrotum were reduced by BbCI pretreatment. Furthermore, levels of the rat chemokine cytokine-induced neutrophil chemo-attractant-1 were significantly reduced in both pleural exudates and serum from animals pretreated with BbCI. Levels of interleukin-1 beta or tumour necrosis factor-alpha, however, did not change. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Taken together, our data suggest that the anti-inflammatory properties of BbCI may be useful in investigations of other pathological processes in which human neutrophil elastase, cathepsin G and cathepsin L play important roles.