Entwicklung einer GC-MS-Methode zur Bestimmung von Iodspezies in wässrigen und gasförmigen Umweltproben

In der Vergangenheit wurde die Wichtigkeit von Iodverbindungen im Bezug auf die Aerosolbildung in Küstennähe wiederholt bestätigt. Durch Photolyse von flüchtigen iodorganischen Verbindungen (VOIs) können in der Atmosphäre Iodatome gebildet werden. Diese hochreaktiven Radikale wiederum können mit Ozon und/oder OH-Radikalen reagieren. Es werden so unter anderem schwerflüchtige Iodoxide gebildet, die in die Partikelphase übergehen können. Um ein Verständnis für die Mechanismen und chemischen Reaktionen zu bekommen, die zur Bildung von iodhaltigen Aerosolpartikeln führen, müssen auch Vorläufersubstanzen qualitativ und quanitativ bestimmt werden. Ob diese Reaktionen und chemischen Verbindungen auch über dem offenen Ozean einen Beitrag zu Aerosolbildung und somit zur Beeinflussung des weltweitem Klimas leisten, soll in dem EU-Projekt MAP geklärt werden, diese Arbeit ist Teil dieses Projekts. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde eine Methode entwickelt, die es zum einen möglich macht, anorganisches Iod in Meerwasser zu bestimmen. Zum anderen sollte eine Methode entwickelt werden, um elementares Iod in der maritimen Atmosphäre zu bestimmen. Es wurde eine Derivatisierungsmethode entwickelt, die es möglich macht elementares Iod in Anwesenheit von Stärke, a-Cyclodextrin oder RAMEA zu derivatisieren. Die Derivatisierung erfolgt zu 4-Iodo-N,N-Dimethylanilin. Durch Extraktion wird der Analyt in die organische Phase überführt. Die Quantifizierung erfolgt anschließend über die Analyse mit GC/MS und externer Kalibrierung. Die absolute Nachweisgrenze für Iod in Wasser beträgt 0,57nmol, für Iodid 0,014nmol und für Iodat 0,115nmol. Die absoluten Nachweisgrenzen für Iod in Anwesenheit eines Absorptionsmittel betragen für Stärke 0,24nmol, für a-Cyclodextrin 0,9nmol und für RAMEA 0,35nmol. Die Analysenmethoden wurden zunächst im Labor entwickelt und anschließend zur Analyse von Realproben verwendet. An verschiedenen Orten wurden Meerwasserproben (auf der Celtic Explorer und in der Nähe der Mace Head Messstation) genommen und deren Iod-, Iodid- und Iodatgehalt bestimmt. Keine der Proben enthielt elementares Iod. Iodid konnte in allen Proben detektiert werden. In Proben, die auf dem offenen Ozean an Bord der Celtic Explorer genommen wurden variierte die Menge zwischen 12µg/L und 90µg/L. Auffällig war hierbei, dass die Proben, die in Küstennähe genommen wurden höhere Iodidkonzentrationen aufwiesen. Ein Einfluss der Küste und der dort vorhandenen Makroalgen ist sehr wahrscheinlich. Meerwasserproben, die in der Nähe der MHARS genommen wurden wiesen höhere Konzentrationen und einen größeren dynamischen Bereich der Iodidkonzentrationen auf. Die Konzentrationen variierten von 29µg/L bis 630 µg/L. Der Iodatgehalt der Meerwasserproben wurde ebenfalls bestimmt. 1µg/L bis 90µg/L Iodat konnte in den Proben vom offenen Ozean detektiert werden. Die Küstenproben wiesen mit 150µg/L bis 230µg/L deutlich höhere Iodatkonzentrationen auf. Es konnte kein Zusammenhang zwischen der Tageszeit und den Iodid- oder Iodatkonzentrationen gefunden werden. Es konnte ebenso kein Zusammenhang zwischen der Fluoreszenz des Meerwassers und den Iodid- oder Iodatkonzentrationen gefunden werden. Auf der Celtic Explorer, wie auch in Mace Head wurden außerdem beschichtete Denuder zur Anreicherung von elementarem Iod aus Luft eingesetzt. Die Denuder, die auf dem Schiff verwendet wurden waren mit Stärke bzw. mit a-CD beschichtet. Die mit Stärke beschichteten Denuder geben so einen Überblick über die Iodkonzentration in Luft über einen längeren Zeitraum (ca. 2-3h), während die mit Cyclodextrin beschichteten Denuder die Iodkonzentration in der letzten halben Stunde der Probennahme widerspiegeln. In fast allen Denudern, die mit Stärke beschichtet waren, konnte mehr Iod nachgewiesen werden, als in denen, die mit a-CD beschichtet waren. Im Allgemeinen konnten in den Proben höhere Iodkonzentrationen gefunden werden, die nachts genommen wurden. Der Grund hierfür liegt in der sehr hohen Photolyserate des elementaren Iods während des Tages. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Konzentration von VOIs und dem Iodgehalt konnte nicht gefunden werden. Anhand der genommen Denuderproben von Mace Head konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Iodkonzentration in Denudern, deren Probenahme während Ebbe beendet wurde hoch deutlich höher sind, als die in anderen Denudern. Das lässt sich dadurch erklären, dass Makroalgen während Ebbe in direktem Kontakt zur Luft sind und somit mehr Iod in der Luft zu finden ist. Eine wichtige Frage, die im Zusammenhang mit der Iodchemie in maritimer Umgebung steht konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit geklärt werden. In der maritimen Grenzschicht über dem Nordatlantik konnte elementares Iod detektiert werden, d.h. es deutet sich an, dass Iod auch auf dem offenen Ozean einen Beitrag zur Partikelbildung liefern kann und es sich nicht ausschließlich um einen Küsteneffekt handelt.

Iodine speciation in atmospheric aerosols in the marine boundary layer

Iodine chemistry plays an important role in the tropospheric ozone depletion and the new particle formation in the Marine Boundary Layer (MBL). The sources, reaction pathways, and the sinks of iodine are investigated using lab experiments and field observations. The aims of this work are, firstly, to develop analytical methods for iodine measurements of marine aerosol samples especially for iodine speciation in the soluble iodine; secondly, to apply the analytical methods in field collected aerosol samples, and to estimate the characteristics of aerosol iodine in the MBL. Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was the technique used for iodine measurements. Offline methods using water extraction and Tetra-methyl-ammonium-hydroxide (TMAH) extraction were applied to measure total soluble iodine (TSI) and total insoluble iodine (TII) in the marine aerosol samples. External standard calibration and isotope dilution analysis (IDA) were both conducted for iodine quantification and the limits of detection (LODs) were both 0.1 μg L-1 for TSI and TII measurements. Online couplings of Ion Chromatography (IC)-ICP-MS and Gel electrophoresis (GE)-ICP-MS were both developed for soluble iodine speciation. Anion exchange columns were adopted for IC-ICP-MS systems. Iodide, iodate, and unknown signal(s) were observed in these methods. Iodide and iodate were separated successfully and the LODs were 0.1 and 0.5 μg L-1, respectively. Unknown signals were soluble organic iodine species (SOI) and quantified by the calibration curve of iodide, but not clearly identified and quantified yet. These analytical methods were all applied to the iodine measurements of marine aerosol samples from the worldwide filed campaigns. The TSI and TII concentrations (medians) in PM2.5 were found to be 240.87 pmol m-3 and 105.37 pmol m-3 at Mace Head, west coast of Ireland, as well as 119.10 pmol m-3 and 97.88 pmol m-3 in the cruise campaign over the North Atlantic Ocean, during June – July 2006. Inorganic iodine, namely iodide and iodate, was the minor iodine fraction in both campaigns, accounting for 7.3% (median) and 5.8% (median) in PM2.5 iodine at Mace Head and over the North Atlantic Ocean, respectively. Iodide concentrations were higher than iodate in most of the samples. In the contrast, more than 90% of TSI was SOI and the SOI concentration was correlated significantly with the iodide concentration. The correlation coefficients (R2) were both higher than 0.5 at Mace Head and in the first leg of the cruise. Size fractionated aerosol samples collected by 5 stage Berner impactor cascade sampler showed similar proportions of inorganic and organic iodine. Significant correlations were obtained in the particle size ranges of 0.25 – 0.71 μm and 0.71 – 2.0 μm between SOI and iodide, and better correlations were found in sunny days. TSI and iodide existed mainly in fine particle size range (< 2.0 μm) and iodate resided in coarse range (2.0 – 10 μm). Aerosol iodine was suggested to be related to the primary iodine release in the tidal zone. Natural meteorological conditions such as solar radiation, raining etc were observed to have influence on the aerosol iodine. During the ship campaign over the North Atlantic Ocean (January – February 2007), the TSI concentrations (medians) ranged 35.14 – 60.63 pmol m-3 among the 5 stages. Likewise, SOI was found to be the most abundant iodine fraction in TSI with a median of 98.6%. Significant correlation also presented between SOI and iodide in the size range of 2.0 – 5.9 μm. Higher iodate concentration was again found in the higher particle size range, similar to that at Mace Head. Airmass transport from the biogenic bloom region and the Antarctic ice front sector was observed to play an important role in aerosol iodine enhancement. The TSI concentrations observed along the 30,000 km long cruise round trip from East Asia to Antarctica during November 2005 – March 2006 were much lower than in the other campaigns, with a median of 6.51 pmol m-3. Approximately 70% of the TSI was SOI on average. The abundances of inorganic iodine including iodine and iodide were less than 30% of TSI. The median value of iodide was 1.49 pmol m-3, which was more than four fold higher than that of iodate (median, 0.28 pmol m-3). Spatial variation indicated highest aerosol iodine appearing in the tropical area. Iodine level was considerably lower in coastal Antarctica with the TSI median of 3.22 pmol m-3. However, airmass transport from the ice front sector was correlated with the enhance TSI level, suggesting the unrevealed source of iodine in the polar region. In addition, significant correlation between SOI and iodide was also shown in this campaign. A global distribution in aerosol was shown in the field campaigns in this work. SOI was verified globally ubiquitous due to the presence in the different sampling locations and its high proportion in TSI in the marine aerosols. The correlations between SOI and iodide were obtained not only in different locations but also in different seasons, implying the possible mechanism of iodide production through SOI decomposition. Nevertheless, future studies are needed for improving the current understanding of iodine chemistry in the MBL (e.g. SOI identification and quantification as well as the update modeling involving organic matters).

Systemically transferred hematopoietic stem cells home to the subretinal space and express RPE-65 in a mouse model of retinal pigment epithelium damage

Stem cell regeneration of damaged tissue has recently been reported in many different organs. Since the loss of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) in the eye is associated with a major cause of visual loss - specifically, age-related macular degeneration - we investigated whether hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) given systemically can home to the damaged subretinal space and express markers of RPE lineage. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) cells of bone marrow origin were used in a sodium iodate (NaIO(3)) model of RPE damage in the mouse. The optimal time for adoptive transfer of bone marrow-derived stem cells relative to the time of injury and the optimal cell type [whole bone marrow, mobilized peripheral blood, HSC, facilitating cells (FC)] were determined by counting the number of GFP(+) cells in whole eye flat mounts. Immunocytochemistry was performed to identify the bone marrow origin of the cells in the RPE using antibodies for CD45, Sca-1, and c-kit, as well as the expression of the RPE-specific marker, RPE-65. The time at which bone marrow-derived cells were adoptively transferred relative to the time of NaIO(3) injection did not significantly influence the number of cells that homed to the subretinal space. At both one and two weeks after intravenous (i.v.) injection, GFP(+) cells of bone marrow origin were observed in the damaged subretinal space, at sites of RPE loss, but not in the normal subretinal space. The combined transplantation of HSC+FC cells appeared to favor the survival of the homed stem cells at two weeks, and RPE-65 was expressed by adoptively transferred HSC by four weeks. We have shown that systemically injected HSC homed to the subretinal space in the presence of RPE damage and that FC promoted survival of these cells. Furthermore, the RPE-specific marker RPE-65 was expressed on adoptively transferred HSC in the denuded areas.

Retinal pigment epithelium damage enhances expression of chemoattractants and migration of bone marrow-derived stem cells

PURPOSE: To characterize chemoattractants expressed by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) after sodium iodate (NaIO3)-induced damage and to investigate whether ocular-committed stem cells preexist in the bone marrow (BM) and migrate in response to the chemoattractive signals expressed by the damaged RPE. METHODS: C57/BL6 mice were treated with a single intravenous injection of NaIO3 (50 mg/kg) to create RPE damage. At different time points real-time RT-PCR, ELISA, and immunohistochemistry were used to identify chemoattractants secreted in the subretinal space. Conditioned medium from NaIO3-treated mouse RPE was used in an in vitro assay to assess chemotaxis of stem cell antigen-1 positive (Sca-1+) BM mononuclear cells (MNCs). The expression of early ocular markers (MITF, Pax-6, Six-3, Otx) in migrated cells and in MNCs isolated from granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and Flt3 ligand (FL)-mobilized and nonmobilized peripheral blood (PB) was analyzed by real-time RT-PCR. RESULTS: mRNA for stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), C3, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) was significantly increased, and higher SDF-1 and C3 protein secretion from the RPE was found after NaIO3 treatment. A higher number of BMMNCs expressing early ocular markers migrated to conditioned medium from damaged retina. There was also increased expression of early ocular markers in PBMNCs after mobilization. CONCLUSIONS: Damaged RPE secretes cytokines that have been shown to serve as chemoattractants for BM-derived stem cells (BMSCs). Retina-committed stem cells appear to reside in the BM and can be mobilized into the PB by G-CSF and FL. These stem cells may have the potential to serve as an endogenous source for tissue regeneration after RPE damage.

An adaptive ERG technique to measure normal and altered dark adaptation in the mouse

The time-course of dark adaptation provides valuable insights into the function and interactions between the rod and cone pathways in the retina. Here we describe a technique that uses the flash electroretinogram (ERG) response to probe the functional integrity of the cone and rod pathways during the dynamic process of dark adaptation in the mouse. Retinal sensitivity was estimated from the stimulus intensity required to maintain a 30 microV criterion b-wave response during a 40 min period of dark adaptation. When tracked in this manner, dark adaptation functions in WT mice depended upon the bleaching effects of initial background adaptation conditions. Altered dark adaptation functions, commensurate with the functional deficit were recorded in pigmented mice that lacked cone function (Gnat2 ( cplf3 )) and in WT mice injected with a toxin, sodium iodate (NaIO(3)), which targets the retinal pigment epithelium and also has downstream effects on photoreceptors. These data demonstrate that this adaptive tracking procedure measures retinal sensitivity and the contributions of the rod and/or cone pathways during dark adaptation in both WT control and mutant mice.

Endogenous bone marrow derived cells express retinal pigment epithelium cell markers and migrate to focal areas of RPE damage

PURPOSE: The aim of the present study was to investigate whether bone marrow-derived cells (BMCs) can be induced to express retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell markers in vitro and can home to the site of RPE damage after mobilization and express markers of RPE lineage in vivo. METHODS: Adult RPE cells were cocultured with green fluorescence protein (GFP)-labeled stem cell antigen-1 positive (Sca-1(+)) BMCs for 1, 2, and 3 weeks. Cell morphology and expression of RPE-specific markers and markers for other retinal cell types were studied. Using an animal model of sodium iodate (NaIO(3))-induced RPE degeneration, BMCs were mobilized into the peripheral circulation by granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, flt3 ligand, or both. Immunocytochemistry was used to identify and characterize BMCs in the subretinal space in C57BL/6 wild-type (wt) mice and GFP chimeric mice. RESULTS: In vitro, BMCs changed from round to flattened, polygonal cells and expressed cytokeratin, RPE65, and microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF) when cocultured in direct cell-cell contact with RPE. In vivo, BMCs were identified in the subretinal space as Sca-1(+) or c-kit(+) cells. They were also double labeled for GFP and RPE65 or MITF. These cells formed a monolayer on the Bruch membrane in focal areas of RPE damage. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, it appears that BMCs, when mobilized into the peripheral circulation, can home to focal areas of RPE damage and express cell markers of RPE lineage. The use of endogenous BMCs to replace damaged retinal tissue opens new possibilities for cell replacement therapy in ophthalmology.

Iodine speciation at time series station DYFAMED

Iodine speciation analysis was carried out upon seawater samples collected in July 1993 at the DYFAMED station (43 °25?N, 7 °52?E) located in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Dissolved iodate and iodide were directly determined by differential pulse polarography and cathodic stripping square wave voltammetry, respectively, and organically bound iodine was estimated by wet-chemical oxidation with sodium hypochlorite. Iodate is the predominant species ranging from 416 nM in surface waters to 480 nM in bottom waters. Iodide is present in significant concentrations up to 60 nM in surface waters, undetectable between 500 and 1000 m depth and present in very low but measurable concentrations (about 6 nM) in deep waters. The vertical profile of total free iodine demonstrates observable removal from surface waters, slight enrichment at about 200 m depth and constant there below. Up to 40 nM of organically bound iodine has been estimated between 20 to 30 m. Factorial analysis of different iodine species with biologically relevant parameters provided strong evidence for iodine biophilic features.